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COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



CONTAINING 



MANY ORIGINAL FEATURES; ESPECIALLY IN THE TREATMENT 
OF VERBS, AND THE OMISSION OF TECHNICAL TERMS, 



IN TWO PARTS: 



COMPRISING 



A COMPLETE ELE.MEKTARY COURSE. 



THOMAS HENDERSON, 

FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF A CLASSICAL ACADEMY, BALTIMORE. 



ud praecipe, esto brevis, ut cito dicta 
Peivtpiant animi dociles, teneantque fideles. 

Horace. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 

18 5 9. 



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J LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.*' 



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COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 

CONTAINING 

MANY ORIGINAL FEATURES; ESPECIALLY IN THE TREATMENT 
OF VERBS, AND THE OMISSION OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 



IN TWO PARTS: 



COMPRISING 



A COMPLETE ELEMENTARY COURSE. 



THOMAS HENDERSON, ^eX^- 

FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF A CLASSICAL ACADEMY, BALTIMORE. 



Quidquid praecipies, esto brevis. ut cito dicta 
Percipiant animi dociles. teneantque fideles. 

Horace. 



ur 



PHILADELPHIA: 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 
18 5 9. 



7£U n 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by 

THOMAS HENDERSON, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the District 

of Maryland. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Intkoduction vii 

Advertisement xxv 

To Teachers xxvii 

Forms of Parsing xxix 

Model ..... xxx 

Specimens *of Parsing xxx 

PART FIRST. 

Section 

1. English Grammar, definition of 35 

2. Parts of Speech , 35 

3. Names or Nouns, definition of.. 35 

4. Number, definition of 36 

5. Subject, Object, and Possessor 36 

6. Possessor — Apostrophe 37 

7. Verb, definition of. 37 

8. Auxiliary and Principal Verbs, distinction between. 37 

9. Infinitive Verb, definition of. 38 

10. Sign of Infinitive Verbs 38 

11. Participles, definition of. 39 

12. Pronouns, definition and list of 40 

13. Variations of Pronouns 41 

. (Hi) 



IV CONTENTS. 

14. Pronouns, how used... 41 

15. Adjectives, definition of 42 

16. Adjectives, position of. 42 

17. Definitive Adjectives, list of 43 

18. Definitive Adjectives, agreement of 43 

19. Adverbs, definition of 45 

20. Prepositions, definition and list of. 45 

21. Conjunctions, definition and list of 47 

22. Conjunctions connect words in same construction 47 

23. Interjections, definition and list of 49 

24. Participles governing Possessors 50 

25. Subject without a Verb 50 

26. Nouns independent 51 

27. Negatives 51 

28. Divisions of Time 52 

Formation of Verbs 53 

Verbal Arch 55 

29. Agreement of Verbs with Subjects 57 

30. Pronouns, relation of 60 

31. Sentences defined 61 

32. Infinitive Verb, &c, as Subject of Verb 62 

33. Relation of Words connected by and 62 

34. Nouns or Pronouns limited by each or every 63 

35. Relation of Words connected by or or nor 63 

36. Verbs and Participles, distinction between 64 

37. Position of Subject 66 

38. Position of Object 66 

39. Th em improperly used for tho se 67 

40. Omissions 67 

41. Changes of Parts of Speech 68 

General Examples 70 



CONTENTS. V 

PART SECOND. 
SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

42. Several Possessors, how marked with Apostrophe.... 73 

43. Extent and Duration 74 

44. Subject and Object with Verb be 74 

45. Verb with more than one Subject 75 

46. Several Nouns referring to same person 76 

47. Verbs with two Objects 76 

48. Every Subject requires a Verb 76 

49. Every finite Verb requires a Subject 77 

50. Infinitive Verbs after dare 77 

51. Past and Prior-present Time, distinction between.... 78 

52. Time of Infinitive Verbs, how determined 79 

53. Uncertainty and futurity, form of Verb to express 80 

54. Will and Shall, use of. 81 

55. Will and Shall convey different ideas 82 

56. General Arrangement 83 

57. A, an, the, with of 85 

58. Regular and Irregular Verbs defined 85 

Irregular Verbs, list of 86 

Obsolete Forms of Verbs 90 

59. Who and Which, distinction between 90 

60. Whatsoever, Whichsoever, and Whosesoever 91 

61. Comparison of Adjectives , 92 

62. Superlatives not to be compared 93 

63. Double Comparatives and Superlatives 94 

64. Comparisons referring to two or more individuals.... 94 

65. Comparative, direction for using the 95 

66. Superlative, direction for using the 95 

67. Adjectives qualifying Verbs, &c 96 

l* 



VI CONTENTS. 

68. A and an, when to be used 96 

69 Comparison of Adverbs 97 

70. Adverbs preceded by the 97 

71. Adverbs, position of , 97 

72. Adverbs and Adjectives, use of ... 98 

73. Among, proper use of. 99 

74. Verbs connected by Conjunctions 99 

75. Corresponding Conjunctions 101 

76. As improperly used for than M 102 

77. Exceptions and Irregularities 102 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation, definition of 104 

The Comma 104 

The Semicolon '. 109 

The Colon 109 

The Period Ill 

The Dash Ill 

The Point of Interrogation Ill 

The Point of Exclamation Ill 

Capital Letters 112 

Examples for Correction 112 

APPENDIX. 

Person, definition of. , 115 

Moods, definition of the five 116 

Conjugation of the Verb "Love" 117 

Conjugations of the Verbs "Be" and "Be loved" 120 

The Verb "Be" with Present Participle 124 

Agreement of Verb with nominative (usual Rule) 124 



INTEODUOTION. 



It seems to be the prevailing opinion of teachers 
generally, that, among the almost numberless 
English Grammars now in use, not one is found, 
which contains the elementary principles of the 
science so concisely developed as to meet the 
popular want. Some are too brief; others too 
diffuse, and too much burdened with extraneous 
matter; and all, so encumbered with technical 
terms, that the learner is discouraged, bewildered, 
or embarrassed, in his unavailing efforts to com- 
prehend the subject. In the estimation of some 
of the ripest scholars and ablest instructors, the 
following work removes these difficulties more 
completely than any other extant. 

That our present systems of English Grammar 
are defective, is evident from the universally ac- 
knowledged fact, that a large majority of those 
who study them, even for years, never receive 

(vii) 



Vlll INTRODUCTION. 

therefrom any practical benefit; and, at length, 
leave school unable either to write or speak their 
own language with propriety. The author has 
long been convinced that some radical changes, 
in the text-books, are essentially necessary ; and 
this conviction gradually strengthened, during an 
extended period of active labor as an instructor 
of youth. After examining carefully a large 
number of our most respectable and popular 
grammars, and contrasting and comparing their 
rules and definitions, and testing them by the 
standard of experience, he has remodeled the 
whole subject, and now offers this improved sys- 
tem to an enlightened public. 

In explanation and defence of some of the 
positions assumed, he submits the following 

OBSERVATIONS ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In these observations, we propose to review 
some of the principal points of English Grammar, 
as they are now found in our standard text- 
books ; and, in doing so, we shall start a number 
of important questions, and leave the reader to 
answer them in his own private reflections. 

1. Is it not advisable to lay aside some of the 



INTRODUCTION. IX 

time-worn technical terms, now in use, that per- 
plex rather than assist the learner, such as 
etymology, syntax, conjugation, declension, &c, 
which are useless appendages ? — and, if the 
student wishes to know their import, let him 
consult a dictionary, rather than have the pages 
of English Grammar encumbered with such defi- 
nitions. 

2. What advantage is gained by dividing 
nouns into common and proper, except to deter- 
mine when to begin them with a capital letter ? 
Would it not be better to defer this until punc- 
tuation is taken up ? 

3. Is either gender or person necessary, except 
to show the agreement between nouns and pro- 
nouns ? And would not violations of this kind 
so outrage common sense as to require no gram- 
matical rules to determine them ? As to verbs 
agreeing in person with their nominatives, we 
shall presently show that this is not the fact. 

4. Why apply the term case, and tax the 
memory to retain, and the understanding to 
comprehend its definition. Say, at once, that a 
name or pronoun is either the subject of a verb, 
the object of a verb, participle, or preposition, or 
the possessor of something ; for, after all that has 



X INTRODUCTION. 

been written on case, it resolves itself into this 
at last. (See Section 5.) 

5. Why use the term tense, and immediately 
define it to mean time ? Why not have six divi- 
sions of time instead of six tenses ? 

6. Does any special benefit arise from the com- 
plicated formality of classing verbs into active, 
passive, neuter, transitive, intransitive, and de- 
fective ? 

7. There seems to be but little necessity for 
moods, as the infinitive, as we shall hereafter 
show, furnishes, for all the others, a law of for- 
mation from which they never deviate, except in 
the present of the indicative, and in the past of 
the subjunctive and indicative of a few verbs. 
These variations we have given in Sections 28 
and 29, and discarded the term mood* These 
changes, it is true, require some explanations, 
particularly in regard to certain parts of the .sub- 
junctive ; but this is now the case, even in gram- 
mars where the colossal structure of moods, 
tenses, numbers, and persons, retains its accus- 
tomed place. The conjugation of the verb, 

* Those who still wish to retain the moods will find 
them in the Appendix, together with the usual conjuga- 
tions of verbs. 



INTEODUCTION. XI 

through all these intricate mazes, has ever been 
regarded, by the learner, as a Herculean task. 
Instead, therefore, of bending the whole language 
to its occasional irregularities, and compelling 
the student, by a wearisome and discouraging 
process, to conjugate, in the usual method, every 
verb he finds ; how much more natural, con- 
sistent, and easy, would it be to remove these 
formidable difficulties, by adapting our course to 
the general tenor of our phraseology, and mark- 
ing the exceptions as such. This plan would 
abridge labor, and render the acquisition of 
grammar more agreeable and certain. 

8. The formation of the tenses has never been 
reduced to regular system. The definitions and 
signs, together with copious examples, have been 
spread over the pages of our grammars, just as 
an architect covers the adjacent space with a col- 
lection of well-prepared materials for a noble 
building ; but the verbal edifice has never been 
erected so as to display its beautiful proportions 
before the admiring gaze of every beholder. In 
Section 28, we have shown that the Infinitive 
is the key-stone that unites the tenses in a grace- 
ful arch, and gives them the most finished sym- 
metry and order. From this they all receive 



Xll INTRODUCTION. 

their form, except the past; and even this, in 
most verbs, develops traces of the same original 
law of harmony. 

9. In Section 58, we have given a new defini- 
tion of regular and irregular verbs, corresponding 
with our method of forming the tenses from the 
infinitive; and, in the list of irregular verbs, 
there set down, we have carried out this idea, so 
that a glance at the list furnishes all the elements 
required to form the six divisions of time, and 
also shows the agreement between the prior-pre- 
sent of the infinitive and the perfect participle. 

10. The indicative has hitherto been made the 
governing mood, and, where the others differed 
from it, these differences have been stated as 
variations from a general rule. We think, on the 
contrary, that the infinitive lies at the foundation 
of the whole, and furnishes a law of formation for 
most verbal changes ; and, that nowhere else is 
this law so perfectly developed as in the subjunc- 
tive. Some parts of the present and of the past 
of the indicative, exhibit deviations from this 
fixed law; while the potential and imperative 
conform completely to it. To explain this more 
fully, we would remark, that to is the sign of the 
present, and to, followed by have, is the sign of 



INTEODUCTION. Xlll 

the prior-present or perfect, of infinitive verbs : 
as, To be, to have been. To love, to have loved. 
To be loved, to have been loved. 

Drop the sign "to" in each form, and the 'present and 
prior-present or perfect of the subjunctive are formed: 
thus, 

PRESENT. 

If I be, If I love, If I be loved, 
If you be, If you love, If you be loved, 
If he be. If he love. If he be loved. 

PRIOR-PRESENT OV PERFECT. 

If I have been, If I have loved, 

If you have been, If you have loved, 

If he has been. If he has loved, &c, &c. 

Change the signs to shall or will, and the future and 
prior-future are formed : thus, 

FUTURE. 

If I shall or will be, &c. 
If I shall or will love, &c. 
If I shall or will be loved, &c. 

PRIOR-FUTURE. 

If I shall have been, &c. 
If I shall have loved, &c. 
If I shall have been loved, &c. 

Had, substituted for to have, forms the 

PRIOR-PAST Or PLUPERFECT. 

If I had been, &c. 
If I had l6ved, &c. 
If I had been loved, &c. 



XIV INTKODUCTION. 

Drop to have, and the past of most verbs is formed 
thus, 

PAST Or IMPERFECT. 

If I loved, 
If you loved, 
If he loved. 

Place may, can, must, might, could, would, or should, be- 
fore the verb in the present and prior-present, and the po- 
tial mood is formed. (See 28th Section of Grammar.) 

The imperative gives the verb precisely as it stands in 
the present subjunctive, or present infinitive, without the 
sign to. 

11. All grammarians assert that " the verb 
must agree with its nominative in number and 
person/' but it will be found, upon careful in- 
vestigation, that our verbs, unlike those of many 
other languages, are not varied from the regular 
forms derived from the infinitive, to agree with 
their nominatives, except in a few instances. 
These we have given in Section 29, and rejected 
the general rule as erroneous.* In this way we 
have shown the true relation between the form 
of the verb and its nominative ; — something 
never before attempted, so far as our knowledge 
extends. 

* The usual rule, although not introduced into the body 
of the work, is given, however, at the close of the Appen- 
dix. Those who prefer it, can use it instead of Section 29. 



INTEODUCTION-. XV 

12. For the sake of uniformity, and to assist 
the memory in retaining them ; we call the tenses, 

Present and Prior-present (the old Perfect). 
Past and Prior-past (the old Pluperfect). 
Futicre and Prior-future (the old Second Future). 

For the same reasons, we have given the defi- 
nitions of adjectives, definitive adjectives, and ad- 
verbs, as nearly as possible in the same phrase- 
ology. 

13. " When nouns and pronouns of different 
persons are connected, in the nominative case, 
the verb must agree, in person, with the one 
next to it, and the pronoun must be put in the 
first person, rather than the second, and in the 
second, rather than the third." 

Grammarians agree that this rule encourages 
the use of a class of harsh and uncouth expres- 
sions; and recommend such changes in the ar- 
rangement of the words as excludes them from 
the range of the rule. "Why not, then, discard it 
as it now stands, and embody, in another form, 
any useful items it may contain ? 

14. There is such a diversity of opinion among 
standard writers, in regard to unity and plurality 
of idea, in nouns of multitude, that the distinc- 



XVI INTRODUCTION. 

tion, as now given in grammars, is almost use- 
less. 

15. "Adjectives belong to the nouns which 
they describe.' ' 

"Adverbs belong to verbs, adjectives, and 

other adverbs.' 7 

"A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is 

governed by the following noun." 

"Transitive verbs govern the objective case." 
"Participles sometimes govern the objective 

case." 

" Prepositions govern the objective case." 
"Participles refer to nouns and pronouns." 
These seven rules are only a reiteration of the 

same language that is found in the definitions ; is 

it not, therefore, a mere repetition to assign them 

any place in Syntax ? 

16. "The interjections 0! Oh! and Ah! re- 
quire the objective case of a pronoun in the first 
person after them; but the nominative case in 
the second person." 

The rule for the "nominative case indepen- 
dent" embraces the latter part of the above rule ; 
and, if the first part be correct, it applies to a 
form of speech seldom used, and its violation is 
so harsh to the ear, that it needs no prompting 



INTEODUCTION. XV11 

to avoid it : the whole of it might, therefore, be 
dropped. But it is not always a safe guide ; the 
sentence, 

" ! I have roamed through many lands," 

would sound very ridiculous, if the pronoun were 
put in the objective case; thus, 

" ! me have roamed through many lands." 

17. " Transitive verbs, in the active voice, 
often take clauses or sentences after them." 

" Prepositions often take clauses or sentences 
after them." ' 

"A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed 
by any word on which it depends." 

"A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed 
by a clause or sentence." 

"The infinitive is sometimes independent." 

Well, what of it ? Can we speak or write more 
accurately by having a knowledge of these five 
rules and notes ? Would any grammatical errors 
arise from ignorance of all that is contained in 
this formidable list ? If so, what are they ? 

18. " Two or more nouns, or nouns and pro- 
nouns, signifying the same thing, without an in- 

2* 



XV111 INTRODUCTION. 

tervening verb, are put by apposition in the 
same case." 

So far as nouns, in the nominative or objective 
case, are concerned, no error can be made from 
neglecting this rule, as these cases are formed 
alike ; and all instances of possessive nouns are 
covered by the rule. " When several names are 
used as expletive of a single individual, as the 
possessor, the sign of the possessive case should 
be added to the last name only." (See Section 
42.) As to examples where both nouns and pro- 
nouns occur, Section 30 includes them, and also 
embraces the rule, " Pronouns must agree with 
the . nouns for which they stand, in gender, per- 
son, and number." 

19. " Transitive verbs, participles, prepositions, 
govern the objective case." 

Are there more than eight words in the English 
language in the use of which these rules can be 
violated? (See Note under Examples, Section 
20.) If not, would it not prevent much per- 
plexity to state this simple fact, instead of re- 
quiring the learner to search promiscuously among 
all nouns and pronouns for errors against three 
separate rules of Syntax? The distinction be- 
tween nominative and objective appears to bo 



INTRODUCTION-. XIX 

entirely useless, except to regulate these eight 
pronouns, and to determine the forms of verbs in 
the few instances noticed in Section 29. 

20. "Two or more nouns, or nouns and pro- 
nouns, in the singular number, .connected by and, 
must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing 
with them in the plural." 

The clause, "in the singular number," should 
be struck out. 

" If the singular nouns, connected by and, are 
limited by each, every, either, or neither, the verb 
and pronoun must be in the singular." 

The words " either or neither,'' 1 here, involve 
an impossibility ; for no sentence can be formed, 
containing "two or more nouns, or nouns and 
pronouns, limited by either or neither, and con- 
nected by and! 1 (See Section 34.) 

" Two or more nouns and pronouns singular, 
connected by or or nor, must have verbs, nouns, 
and pronouns, to agree with them in the sin- 
gular." 

An additional clause should follow this, show- 
ing the proper agreement when either of the con- 
nected words is plural. (See Section 35.) 

21. Sections 32, 33, 34, 35, 46, by a peculiar 



XX INTRODUCTION. 

phraseology, exhibit the true principle involved 
in the agreement of words connected by conjunc- 
tions ; and their real relation to other parts of 
speech. 

Under Section 32, a very important note is 
given, specifying in what instances only, several 
prominent rules can be violated. This may save 
the learner much perplexity, and give him a 
clearer understanding of the relation between 
the verb and its subject. 

22. " The relative is the nominative case to the 
verb, when no nominative case comes between it 
and the verb." 

"■When a nominative case comes between the 
relative and the verb, the relative is governed 
by some word in its own member of the sen- 
tence." 

These rules are useless, as the cases may all 
be determined by the other general rules relating 
to cases. 

23. "When the relative is preceded by two 
nominatives of different persons, .the relative and 
verb may agree in person with either, according 
to the sense. 

If the learner is permitted to use either form 



INTRODUCTION; XXI 

of the verb, why perplex him with any rule on 
the subject." 

" When the relative and verb have been deter- 
mined to agree with either of the preceding 
nominatives, that agreement must be preserved 
throughout the sentence." 

Here is another repetition. All this is in- 
cluded in the rule, "In the use of words and 
phrases which, in point of time, relate to each 
other, &c." (See Section 56.) 

24. "Those is sometimes incorrectly used in- 
stead of they at the beginning of a sentence : as, 
Those who live in glass houses, &c. ; for, They 
who live, &c." 

This rule rests on so slender a foundation, that 
we omit it. 

25. " The perfect tense of the infinitive should 
not be placed after another verb in past time." 

This rule will not always hold good. For ex- 
ample : " From a conversation I once had with 
him, he appeared to have studied Homer with 
great care and judgment. For the correct rule, 
see Section 52. 

26. " Some conjunctions require the indica- 
tive, some the subjunctive mood, after them. 



XX11 INTRODUCTION. 

It is a general rule, that when something con- 
tingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunctive 
ought to be used. Conjunctions that are of a 
positive and absolute nature require the indica- 
tive mood/' 

This rule is indefinite, and is contradicted by 
the remarks which follow it, in Murray (and are 
copied by Smith). As the learner cannot de- 
pend on it for a guide, it ought never to have 
been inserted. In Sections 53, 54, we think we 
have brought within a small compass all that 
necessarily belongs to the subjunctive mood; 
comprehending the prolix and intricate explana- 
tions, usually given in grammars, in regard to its 
peculiarities. 

27. Section 22, on the power of conjunctions 
as connectives, is applied to participles, adjec- 
tives, and adverbs ; a point of some importance, 
yet generally unnoticed, by grammarians. 

This section embraces Murray's Eule XX : — 
" "When the qualities of different things are com- 
pared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed 
by the conjunction than or as, but agrees with 
the verb, or is governed by the verb or the pre- 
position expressed or understood;" and also his 



INTRODUCTION.. XX111 

Rule XVIII : " Conjunctions connect the same 
moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and 
pronouns." 

Mr. Murray says, "If the. 18th Eule should 
not appear to apply to every example, it will be 
found, on strict examination, that the supposed 
exceptions are, in fact, sentences which do not 
come within the reason and limitation of the 
rule. Thus, in the sentence, ' I have a greater 
respect for them than he/ the pronoun he is con- 
nected by the conjunction than with the pronoun 
them: and yet they are not put in the same 
case; because they have not the same bearing 
and relation, with regard to the rest of the sen- 
tence ; which is requisite according to Eule 18, 
and its explanatory note." 

Had Mr. Murray observed that I and he are, 
in reality, the pronouns connected by. than, and 
are both in the same case, and that his 18th 
Rule thus covers the whole ground in dispute, all 
difficulties would have vanished, and his 20th 
Rule would never have been framed. A slight 
transposition of the sentence sets the proper con- 
nection in a, clear light : thus, "I have a greater 
respect than he, for them." Here the compari- 



XXIV INTRODUCTION. 

son is evidently made between I and he, and not 
between them and he. 

Other changes and improvements are intro- 
duced into various parts of the work, which it is 
not necessary here to enumerate. 

T. Henderson. 

June, 1859. 



ADVEBTISEMENT. 



The author claims for this system the follow- 
ing advantages : — 

1. Originality, in many points, especially in 
his method of treating verbs, and in the omission 
of technical terms. 

2. Brevity, comprehensiveness, and clearness. 

3. Important changes in definitions and rules : 
excluding some ; altering and amending others ; 
and, occasionally, condensing two or more into 
one. 

4. Dividing the work into two parts, and so 
arranging them that the first alone, if used by 
those whose time is limited, will enable them to 
acquire in a very short period a practical know- 
ledge of grammar; whereas, a portion of the 
other systems now extant is of very little service 
without a familiarity with the whole. The first 
part is complete in itself. 

3 (xxv) 



XXVI ADVERTISEMENT. 

5. The first and second parts, together, con- 
tain a larger amount of grammatical information 
than can be found in twice the space elsewhere ; 
and afford facilities for obtaining a rapid and 
thorough acquaintance with the science. 

Orthography and Prosody have been left out, 
as they are seldom studied, when inserted ; and 
would only swell the size of the book, without 
conferring on the learner any real benefit. 



TO TEAOHEES. 



This work is designed for two classes of per- 
sons, and is, consequently, divided into two parts. 
Those who have but little leisure should use only 
the first part. This, if thoroughly mastered, will 
make them better grammarians than a large ma- 
jority of those who have devoted years to this 
branch of knowledge : in fact, it is sufficient for 
all common, practical purposes. If the learner, 
after advancing thus far, has time and inclination 
to go more deeply into the subject, he will find 
the nicer shades of distinction in language un- 
folded in the brief, but comprehensive sections of 
the second part. The whole, when well under- 
stood, will give the student a clear, concise, and 
systematic view of the science of English Grammar. 

The learner should parse and correct all the 
examples as they occur, and be careful never to 
pass a section, without becoming well acquainted 
with every point which it contains. Models and 
specimens of parsing will be found at the begin- 
ning of the book. 

(xxvii) 



XXV111 TO TEACHERS. 

Teachers should labor to fix in the minds of 
their pupils the following six points ; when these 
are well understood, other difficulties can be 
easily mastered : — 

1. All errors, arising from the improper use of 
subjects and objects, are confined to eight pro- 
nouns. See Note under u Examples for Correc- 
tion " Section 20. 

2. All the regular forms of verbs are contained 
in Section 28 ; and 

All the variations from these forms are included 
in the three exceptions of Section 29. See also 
Note under Section 32. 

3. The true forms and relations of all pronouns 
may be determined by substituting (mentally) in 
their places the words for which they stand. This 
is a simple and infallible rule. See Section 30. 

4. By supplying omissions many difficulties in 
parsing may be removed. See Section 40. 

5. The same word is often used for several 
parts of speech. See Section 41. 

6. Names, verbs, participles, pronouns, adjec- 
tives, and adverbs, connected by conjunctions, 
must be in the same construction. See Section 
22, and also the 27th Section of the introductory 
"Observations." 



FORMS OF PARSING. 

Name, ok Noun. — Why a name ? What num- 
ber ? Subject, object, or possessor of what ? 

Veeb. — Why a verb? What is its subject ? 

Note. — When the learner has passed Section 29, he should add 
to this form of parsing the verb the following : Of what time? Is 
it of the regular form, or an exception ? 

Infinitive Verb. — Why a verb ? Why infini- 
tive ? Of what time ? 

Participle. — Why a participle? What kind, 
and why? 

Pronoun. — Why a pronoun ? What number ? 
Subject, object, or possessor of what? 

(Repeat the variations, if it belongs to this class. See Section 13.) 

Adjective. — Why an adjective? 

Definitive Adjective. — Why a definitive ad- 
jective? Apply Section 18. 

Adverb. — Why an adverb ? 

3 * (XXIX | 



XXX 



F OEMS OF PARSING. 



Preposition. — Why a preposition ? 
Conjunction. — Why a conjunction ? 
Interjection. — Why an interjection ? 

In parsing, the learner should write out the sentences on a slate 
or black-board, and unite together, by lines, all words that have a 
grammatical connection. This plan will enable him to see at a 
glance how one word depends upon another. See the following 

MODEL. 
He steered his noble bark far away 



over the blue waves of the roiling 




SPECIMENS OF PAKSING. 

I. He steered his noble bark far away over the 
blue waves of the rolling sea. 

He is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun ; singu- 
lar number, it represents only one ; it is the subject of the 
verb steered. Singular, Ae, his, him; plural, they, their, 
them. 

Steered is a verb, it asserts action ; past time, it refers to 
an indefinite period previous to the present; of the regular 
form ; its subject is he. 

His is a pronoun, &c. ; it is the possessor of bark. 

Noble is an adjective, it is added to the name bark to 
qualify it. 

Bark is a name; singular number, it represents only 
one ; it is the object of the verb steered. 



SPECIMENS OF PARSING. XXXI 

Far is an adverb, it is added to the adverb away to 
qualify it. 

Away is an adverb, it is added to the verb steered to 
qualify it. 

Over is a preposition, a word used to connect other words 
and show the relation between them. 

The is a definitive adjective, it is added to the name 
waves to limit its signification. 

Blue is an adjective, &c. 

Waves is a name ; plural number, it represents more than 
one ; it is the object of the preposition over. 

Of is a, preposition, &c. 

The is a definitive adjective, &c. 

Boiling is a participle, it is a certain form of the verb 
roll, used to describe the name sea; present, it denotes con- 
tinued action. 

Sea is a name, &c. ; object of the preposition of. 

II. James and John came. 

James is a name, &c. ; subject of the verb came. 

And is a conjunction, it is used to connect words. 

John is a name, &c. ; it is the subject of the verb came, 
and connected with James, in the same construction, by the 
conjunction and. Section 22. 

Came is a verb, &c. ; of the regular form ; its subjects are 
James and John. Section 33. 

III. Some live and die in obscurity. 

Some is a pronoun ; plural ; it is the subject of the verb 
live. 

Live is a verb, &c. 

And is a conjunction, &c. 

Die is a verb ; of present time, and regular form, because 
it is connected with live, in the same construction, by the 
conjunction and. Section 22. 



XXX11 SPECIMENS OF PAESING. 

IV. Bid them come. 

Bid is a verb ; of present time ; regular form, it is used 
in commanding — Section 29, III. ; its subject is thou un- 
derstood. Section 40. 

Them is a pronoun ; plural ; object of verb bid. 

Come is a verb, it asserts action ; infinitive, it is used in 
a general or unlimited manner; the sign to is omitted after 
bid — Section 10 ; present time, it refers to what is now 
transpiring. 

V. To die is the common lot. 

Is is a verb ; of present time ; its subject is the infinitive 
verb to die — Section 32 ; it is formed according to Section 
29,11. 

Lot is a name ; singular ; it is a subject after the verb is. 
Section 37, 44. 

VI. The birds flew south. 

South is a name ; singular ; it stands independent of 
verbs or prepositions. Section 26. 

VII. Samuel, go home. 

Samuel is a name ; singular ; it stands as a subject with- 
out a verb, because it is addressed. Section 25. 
Go is parsed like bid, in Specimen IV. 
Home is parsed like south in the last specimen. 

VIII. The day being ended, we retired. 

Day is a name ; singular ; it is placed with the participle 
being ended, as a subject without a verb. Section 25. 

Being ended is a participle, it is a certain form of the 
verb be ended, used to describe the name day ; present, it 
denotes a continued state. 



SPECIMENS OF PARSING. XXX111 i 

IX. At the time of Charles' coming. 

Charles' is a name ; singular ; it is a possessor before the 
participle coming. Section 24. 

X. His son is sober, industrious, and obedient. 

Sober, industrious, obedient, are adjectives, added to the 
name son, to qualify it ; they are in the same construction, 
connected by and. Section 22. 

XI,. They work rapidly, constantly, and faith- 
folly. 

Rapidly, constantly, faithfully, are adverbs, added to the 
verb work to qualify it ; they are in the same construction, 
connected by and. Section 22. 

XII. Alas ! he cannot long survive ! 

Alas is an interjection, a word used to express some sud- 
den emotion of the speaker. 

Can survive is a verb, &c. ; its subject is he. 
Not and long may both be parsed as adverbs, qM.lifying 
can survive. 



A COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR. 



PART FIRST. 

1. English Grammar explains the correct 
method of using the English Language. 

PAETS OF SPEECH 

2. Every word, in the English Language, be- 
longs to some one or more of the following classes, 
or parts of speech : Names or Nouns, Verbs , Par- 
ticiples, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, Preposi- 
tions, Conjunctions, Interjections. 

NAMES OE NOUNS. 

3. Names are; the words by which persons or 
things are called : as, "John, Baltimore, girl, 
stars." 

Note. — Any word that will take a, an, or the before it, or that 
will make sense of itself, is a name: as, "a day, an honr, the sun ; 

truth, justice, temperance." 

(35) 



36 NAMES. 

Point out the names in the following. 
EXAMPLES. 

Time and tide wait for no man. 
* Reason governs wise men ; punishment fools. 
The vessel lost her anchor on a reef of rocks. 

NUMBER. 

4. When a word represents only one object or 
thing, it is said to be Singular : as, "Pen, man, 
sun, he, she, it, this. 1 ' When more than one, it is 
said to be Plural : as, "Pens, men, suns, they, 
them, these" 

5. A noun or pronoun must be either 

I. The Subject or nominative of a verb ; 
II. The Object of a verb, participle, or 

preposition; or 
III. The Possessor of something. 

EXAMPLES. 

I. Subjects. — John learns. Man dies. The child sleeps. 

Rains descend. They slumber. He will come. You 
smile. 

II. Objects. — Spell the lesson. Improve your mind. Call 

Tier. Sarah saw thee. They found a boy catching 
fish. Having bought a knife he cut his finger. A 
fly on the wall. He is at home. 

III. Possessors. — Richard? 's pen. Hannah 1 s thimble. The 

sailor's delight. His horse. My sword. The mer- 
chant's vessel. 



VEEBS. 37 

6. When a name denotes a possessor, it must 
always be marked by an apostrophe: as, "Ro- 
bert's cane, boys hats." 

Correct the following EXAMPLES, by adding the apostrophe: 

Williams book. The suns splendor. 

Mans labor. Heroes laurels. 

Washingtons farewell. Deaths triumphs. 

VERBS. 

7. A verb is a word that asserts action, being, 
or state : as, " William walks and breathes. 1 ' 
" They exist" " He sleeps in death." 

Note. — Any word that will take 7, thou, he, it, they, or to, before 
it, is a verb : as, " I come, thou hast suffered, he lives, it will rain, 
they go, to smile, to have written." 

8. Sometimes a verb is only a single word, and 
sometimes it consists of two or more words : in 
the latter case, the last word is called the princi- 
pal verb, and those before it are called auxi- 
liaries. 

EXAMPLES. 

Love, walked, did come, was made, has been seen, might 
go, may have gone, is writing. 

Which of these are auxiliaries, and which principal verbs ? 

Note. — The auxiliary verbs are may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should, and shall. Do, be, have, and will, are sometimes 
auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs. 

4 



38 VERBS. 

9. An infinitive verb is one that is used in a 
general or unlimited manner: as, "To die is 
gain." " He is said to have gone home." 

10. Infinitive verbs are always preceded by the 
sign to, except when following the verbs bid, 
dare, hear, feel, see, let, make, &c. : as, " Who 
heard him say it." "He bids me come" "They 
dare engage" (See Section 50.) 

Parse, according to the forms on page xxix, all the names and 
verb 8 in the following 

EXAMPLES. 

Stars twinkle. 

The sun shines. 

John loves to study grammar. 

The bird's nest has fallen. 

Life's storms must cease. 

Zephyrs cool his brow. 

Arnold attempted to betray his country. 

Samuel's labor will be rewarded. 

Men should assert their rights. 

Care clouds the brow. 

Old ocean's waves lash the shore. 

Sailors delight to reach the port. 

Alfred may have seen his father. 

Duty's voice bids him hasten. 



PARTICIPLES. 39 



PAKTIOIPLES. 

11. Participles are certain forms of verbs used 
to describe nouns and pronouns: as, "The flower 
blooming in the vale." " They saw him ; smitten 
and sad." 

I. The present participle denotes continued 
action, being, or state, and always ends in ing : as, 
"The leaf, trembling, falls." " Being destitute, he 
desired assistance." " I found him sleeping." 

Note. — To distinguish a present participle from other parts of 
speech that have the same ending, cut off ing, and, if what remains 
is a verb, the word is a participle ; otherwise it is not : thus, Roam- 
ing, walking, standing, make the verbs, roam, walk, stand ; there- 
fore they are participles : but evening, morning, uninteresting, make 
even, morn, uninterest, which are not verbs; and, therefore, these 
words are not participles. 

II. The perfect participle denotes finished ac- 
tion, being, or state: as, Loved, been, been loved; 
"A reed shaken with the wind." It always makes 
sense after to have : as, " To have shaken." 

III. When the perfect participle has the word 
having before it, it is called the compound perfect 
participle : as, " James, after having waited an 
hour, returned home." 

Parse, according to the forms on page xxix, all the names, 
verbs, and participles in the following 



40 



PRONOUNS. 



EXAMPLES. 

Death quenched the wrath burning in the Indian's 
bosom. 

The faded rose still yields its fragrance. 

Charles, having read the letter, ceased to mourn. 

The tower, erected on the mountain's brow, had cast a 
lengthening shadow. 

Striking their tents, the soldiers onward marched. 



PRONOUNS. 
12. A pronoun is a word used instead of a 



noun or name. 



All the pronouns are contained in the following 





LIST OF 


PRONOUNS. 




As, 


few, 


less, 


much, 


same, 


thou, 


all, 


first, 


least, 


neither, 


several, 


thine, 


any, 


former, 


last, 


none, 


some, 


theirs, 


another, 


he, 


latter, 


one, 


such, 


who, 


both, 


his, 


mine, 


ours, 


that, 


which 


each, 


hers, 


many, 


own, 


this, 


what, 


every, 


I, 


more, 


other, 


those, 


yours. 


either 


it, 


most, 


she, 


these, 





Notes. — Mine, thine, his, when standing before names, are pos- 
sessors : as, " Mine arm, thine eye, his hand." Otherwise they are 
either subjects or objects: as, "Mine is the labor and thine shall be 
the reward." " Mary's desk stands near his." 

What may be both a subject and object at the same time : as, " I 
purchased what was offered." Here what is the object of the verb 
"purchased," and also the subject of the verb "was offered." "Ac- 
cording to what was proposed." Here what is the object of the pre- 
position "according to," and the subject of "was proposed." 

Pronouns are sometimes found with so, self, ever, or soever, at- 
tached to them: as, whoso, himself, itself, whoever, whatsoever. 



PRONOUNS. 



41 



13. Ten of the pronouns are thus varied, — the 
others never change their form : — 



Sing. 


Subject. 

i, 


Possessor. 

my, 


Object. 

me, 


Subject. 
Thou, 


Possessor. 
thy, 


Object. 
thee, 


Plur. 


we. 


our, 


us. 


ye or you, your, 


you. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


He, 

they, 


his, 
their, 


him, 
them. 


She, 
they, 


her, 
their, 


her, 
them. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


It, 

they, 


its, 
their, 


it, 
them. 


Who, 
who, 


whose, 
whose, 


whom, 
whom. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


Which 

which, 


, whose, 
whose, 


which, 
which. 


One, 
ones, 


one's, 
ones', 


one, 
ones. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


Other, 

others, 


other's, 
others', 


other, 
others. 


Another, another's, 
(No Plural 


another. 

) 



14. Pronouns must not be used in the same 
part of a sentence as the names for which they 
stand: as, "John he went home;" it should read, 
"John went home." "I saw her the queen; 11 
corrected, " I saw the queen." 

Correct all the violations of the above rule; insert the apostro- 
phes, where omitted (See Section 6); and parse all the names, verbs, 
participles, and pronouns, in the following 

EXAMPLES. 

The king he rewarded his sons obedience. 
Casting his net into the river, he awaited the result. 
Their children they love them. 
Some labor while others they play. 
All must answer deaths summons. 
Anothers gold has purchased what I enjoy. 
4 * 



42 ADJECTIVES. 

Pestilence it may destroy many. 
Several saw the bird perched on a willows bough. 
Mary she went to gather berries, and, having found 
few, returned. 



ADJECTIVES. 

15. Adjectives are words added to nouns and 
pronouns to qualify them, or limit their significa- 
tion : as, "A prudent man gives wise counsel." 
"They are industrious." "This boy has three 

pens." 

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 

Qualifying Adjectives. — Good, bad, wise, strong, tem- 
perate, humble, mild, deeper, greatest, &c. 

Limiting or Definitive Adjectives. — Many, several, eight, 
much, few, &c. (See next page.) 

Note. — Any word that will take thing, or any other name after it, 
is an adjective : as, a good thing, a better thing, a warm day, a sharp 
knife, that book, many stars. 

16. Adjectives should, usually, be placed next 
to the names which they qualify, — always, when 
there are two names near each other : as, "A cup 
of cold water ;" not, "A cold cup of water." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

A sweet wreath of roses. 

A fragrant garden of flowers. 

They have a most elegant supply of furniture. 

James sold a good load of straw. 

He owns a fine row of house?. 



DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 



43 



That captain commands an active company of men. 

Susan lost a beautiful pair of gloves. 

Isaac sports a black pair of whiskers. 

Kobert wears a splendid suit of clothes and drives a fine 
span of horses. 

He had strength of mind enough to conquer his supersti- 
tion. 

17. The following are called limiting, or 
DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 



A, 


few, 


much, 


the, 


an, 


former, 


neither, 


this, 


any, 


less, 


no, 


that, 


all, 


least, 


other, 


these, 


another, 


last, 


own, 


those, 


both, 


latter, 


some, 


which, 


each, 


many, 


same, 


what, 


every, 


more, 


such, 


yon, 


either, 


most, 


several, 





and all other words used in numbering and counting : as, 
three, ten, thousand, fourth, fiftieth, &c. 

Also the compounds, whatever, whichever, whatsoever, 
whichsoever. 



Note. — In the above list, a, an, the, are always definitive adjec- 
tives ; the other words are definitives when a name immediately fol- 
lows, — otherwise they are pronouns. Both, either, neither, that, 
sometimes become conjunctions. (See Section 21, Note, and 41,/.) 

18. Definitive adjectives must agree, in num- 
ber, with their names ; and, on the contrar)^ 
names must agree with their definitives : as, 
"Manv men." " One child.'' 



44 DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

A few men. A great many. 

A score. A thousand years. 

Many a friend. Ten head of cattle. 

Five sail of the line. By this means. 

By that means. Every three hours. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

I have walked six mile these warm day. 

All kind of produce. 

Each men's share. 

Those sort of apples. 

The cask holds forty gallon 

A rock ten foot high. 

Two ton make a load. 

A few share of bank stock. 

Parse all the names, verbs, participles, pronouns, and adjectives, in 
the following 

EXAMPLES. 

Solomon wrote many proverbs. 

Their good deeds will survive them. 

This man gave all his splendid furniture to a few friends. 

Which child did I see? 

Yon lofty temple, built at much cost, will soon fall. 

Every man should have some employment. 

She is too kind to have treated me thus. 

Many die in early life ; others live to reach maturity; 
and a few arrive at old age. 

Who taught the bird to build its nest? who commanded 
gravitation to bind all to its sphere? 

Having seated herself, she watched the moon-beams 
dancing on the billow's crest. 



ADVERBS. 45 



ADVEBBS. 

19. Adverbs are words added to verbs, partici- 
ples, adjectives, and other adverbs, to qualify them : 
as, "A very good pen writes extremely well" " I 
heard a dove cooing mournfully." 

Adverbs are occasionally added to names, pro- 
nouns, and prepositions: as, "This man also 
came." "Even he was there." "She is far 
from home." 

Note. — Any word that will answer to the question, how? how 
much ? when f or where f is an adverb : as, in the sentence, " Time 
flies rapidly," the answer to the question, " How does time fly ?" is, 
rapidly ; therefore rapidly is an adverb. 

PARSING EXERCISES. 

We have been well rewarded. 
I can not answer you. 
That place is very widely distant. 
He died suddenly, far from a quiet home. 
The star will soon disappear. 

The former came yesterday, and the latter may arrive 
to-day. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

20. Prepositions are words used to connect 
other words and show the relation between them : 
as, " Samuel is in the street, near the corner." 



46 



PREPOSITIONS. 



The principal prepositions are embraced in the following 
LIST. 



Above, 


athwart, 


down, 


round, 


at, 


around, 


except, 


to, 


among, 


astride, 


for, 


toward, 


amongst, 


by, 


from, 


towards, 


after, 


below, 


instead of, 


through, 


about, 


between, 


in, 


throughout, 


against, 


betwixt, 


into, 


under, 


abaft, 


beneath, 


near, 


underneath, 


according to, 


beyond, 


notwithstanding, 


up, 


across, 


before, 


over, 


upon, 


along, 


behind, 


of, 


unto, 


amid, 


beside, 


off, 


with, 


amidst, 


besides, 


on, 
without. 


within, 



Note. — Prepositions are often understood: as, "Grant me my re- 
quest;" that is, " Grant to me." "His house faces the east ;" that 
is, " toward the east." (See Section 40.) 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

(See Section 5, I. II) 

Note. — By referring to Section 13, the learner will perceive that 
the pronouns I, thou, he, she, who, ice, ye, they, when used as ob- 
jects, become, me, thee, him, her, whom, us, you, them: a mistake 
cannot be made in using a subject instead of an object, and the con- 
trary, except in one of these eight pronouns. 

It is not I he is engaged with. 

He invited they and me to see him. 

In assisting thou he injured hisself. 

It was not he that they were so angry with. 

She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Who did they entertain so freely. 

From who did he receive the present? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



47 



Fearing not only ye, but us also, them acted with cau- 
tion. 

To unhappy we there is not much hope remaining. 

Them willingly, and of theirselves, endeavored to make a 
reconciliation. 

He and them we know, but whom art thou ? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

21. Conjunctions are words used to connect 
words and sentences: as, "Life and death." 
" You are happy because you are good." 

The principal conjunctions are contained in the following 
LIST. 



And, 


either, 


notwithstanding, 


therefore 


as, 


for, 


or, 


than, 


both, 


if, 


provided, 


though, 


because, 


lest, 


since, 


unless, 


besides, 


neither 


that, 


wherefore, 


but, 


nor, 


then, 


yet, 



whereas. (See Section 17, Note.) 

Note. — That, when it stands in close connection before a name, 
and defines or limits its meaning, is a definitive adjective : as, "That 
pen is mine." When not so placed, if it can be turned into who or 
which, without destroying the sense, it is a pronoun : as, "All that 
I see charms me ;" or, "All which I see," <fcc. In all other instances, 
that is a conjunction : as, " He knows that his end is coming." 

22. Conjunctions, either expressed or under- 
stood, connect words in the same construction : 
as, "They live and learn" "He and s he reside 



48 CONJUNCTIONS. 

there." "I saw William on Richard." "Some 
toil early and late" " I love spring } summer, 
autumn } and winter" "Thou art a wiser man 
than L" 

Note. — This is a very comprehensive rule, and applies to names f 
verbs, participles, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. See the fol- 
lowing 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

He and them were there. 

Her and Henry came. 

Him and I are well. 

His wealth and him bid adieu to each other. 

Neither Peter nor us saw the stranger. 

Between him and I there was some contention. 

Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death. 

She has improved more than me. 

Jane can sew as rapidly as her. 

A bolder hero than him never lived. 

A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty ; but a fool's 
wrath is heavier than them both. (Proverbs, xxvii. 3.) 

I have no friend but he. 

She has a dislike to more than he. 

None were injured but them. 

These are John and Samuel's' tools. 

He and their farms lie adjoining. 

It affects both the merchant and mechanic's interest. 

He acted bravely, nobly, and wise. 

That gentleman's servant is sober, industrious, and obe- 
diently. 

She saw a man ploughing or having walked. 

The flowers are neither budding nor having bloomed in 
the garden. 

Professing regard, and to act differently, discover a base 
mind. 



INTERJECTIONS. 49 



INTEKJECTIONS. 

23. Interjections are words used to express 
some sudden emotion of the speaker : as, iC Alas ! 
I fear for life." 

Some of the more usual interjections are given in the following 

LIST. 



Ah! 


foh! 




hark ! 


poh ! 


alas ! 


heigh 




hail! 


pish ! 


away ! 


hem ! 




halloo ! 


really ! 


all hail! 


ho! 




0! 


soho! 


behold ! 


hist! 




oh! 


strange ! 


fie! 


hush! 


welcome 


lo! 


tush! 



PARSING EXERCISES. 

Every heart knows its own sorrows. 
Being reviled, we bless. 

Ridiculed, despised, persecuted, he maintained his prin- 
ciples. 

Thou art industrious. 
Hark ! how sweetly the woodlark sings ! 
From virtue to vice, the progress is gradual. 
By diligence and frugality, we arrive at competency. 
Reproof either softens, or hardens, its object. 
Though some are often advised, yet they do not reform. 
Welcome ! to our peaceful valleys and mountains. 
We could not serve him then, but we will hereafter. 
Having been deserted, all became discouraged. 
Friendship's smilo often cheers a desponding heart. 
He came unto his own, and his own received him not. 

5 



50 SPECIAL RULES. 

Alas! no man's life is secure. 

The men who left were slain, whereas the others escaped. 

What did each say? 

They that sow in tears shall reap in joy. 

It is strange that the messenger does not return. 

I I saw that man whom you seek. 

You may not have been deceived by another's hypocrisy. 

If greatness flatters our vanity, it multiplies our dangers. 



SPECIAL BULES. 

24. Participles often require the nouns and 
pronouns preceding them to take the form .of 
possessor : as, "At the time of Charles coming.'" 
" On his departing the foe advanced." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

John coming so soon surprised us. 

Much depends on this rule being observed. 

That was the cause of him failing. 

He is aware of his companion suffering. 

What is the result of the patient neglecting the prescrip- 
tion ? 

On he entering the room all others retired. 

On me having said we could not do too much, he seemed 
agitated. 

25. The name of a person or thing addressed, 
or a noun or pronoun placed with a participle 
and independent of the rest of the sentence, 
stands as a subject without a verb: as, tl George 7 



SPECIAL EULES. 51 

where are you?" "The day being past, we re- 
tired." "He having gone, they fled." 

Note. — This rule can only be violated in using the eight pronouns 
mentioned in the Note under " Examples for Correction," Section 20. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Him being a child, his parents deserted him. 
The ladder trembled, him descending. 
Whom having returned, order was restored. 
thee ! whose name I love. 
Them having called, he laid aside his pen. 

26. Home, way, north, east, and some other 
words of similar meaning ; and also names signi- 
fying duration, extension, quantity, quality, and 
valuation, often stand independent of verbs or 
prepositions: as, " He came home" "She went 
this way" " The birds flew south" " They tra- 
velled that course." "The flower bloomed a 
month." "John is five miles distant." " Water 
ten feet deep." " The hat is worth two dollars" 
"Ascend the mountain." {See Section 40.) 

27. Two negatives, in the same simple sen- 
tence, destroy each other, and are equivalent to 
an affirmative: as, " It is no£ uncertain," means, 
"It is certain." "He will never be no taller/' 
means, " He will be taller." 



52 DIVISIONS OF TIME. 



EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Nor did they not perceive him. 

No imitator never equalled his author. 

I cannot by no means grant his request. 

They cannot do nothing. 

Covet neither life, nor no earthly good. 



DIVISIONS OF TIME 

28. Strictly speaking, time must be either pre- 
sent, past, or future; but variety of language 
gives each of these divisions a twofold significa- 
tion : as, 

I. Present time, referring to what is now 
transpiring: as, " They come." " I learn." "You 
go." "To give." 

II. Prior-present time, referring both to the 
past and present: as, "They have come." "I 
have learned." "You may have gone." "To 
have given." 

III. Past time, referring to any indefinite pe- 
riod previous to the present : as, " They came." 
" I learned." " You went." 

IV. Prior-past time, referring to a past pe- 
riod, prior to some other past period specified : 



FORMATION OF VERBS. 53 

as ; " They had come." " I had learned." " You 
had gone." 

V. Future time, referring to any indefinite pe- 
riod after the present: as, " They will come." 
" I shall learn." " You will go." 

VI. Prior-future time, referring to 1 a future 
period, prior to some other future period speci- 
fied : as, " They will have come." " I shall have 
learned." " You will have gone." 



FOBMATION OF VEEBS. 

The Infinitive Verb furnishes a complete 
Key to the foregoing divisions of time : thus, 

To is the sign of the present of infinitive 
verbs: as, "to go;" and to, followed by have, is 
the sign of the prior-present : as, " to have 
gone." 

Drop the sign to, in each form, or change it to 
may, can, must, might, could, would, or should, 
and the present and prior-present are formed. 

Change the signs to shall or will, and the fu- 
5* 



54 FORMATION OF VEKBS. 

ture and prior-future are formed. (See Sections 
54, 55.) 

Had substituted for to have, forms the prior- 
past. 

Drop to have, and the past, of most verbs, 
is formed. The past of any verb is correctly 
formed when it makes sense with once before it, 
or yesterday after it: as, "He once went, 11 or 
" He went yesterday." 

Participles also are easily formed from infini- 
tive verbs. (See Section 11.) 

EXAMPLES, 

Showing the Regular Forms of the Verb to express the 
six divisions of time : — 

PRESENT TIME.* 

Go. 

May, can, must, might, could, would, or 
should go. 



Infinitive verb, 
To go. 



FUTURE TIME. 

Shall or will go. (See Section 55.) 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

k Going. 



* Some of the forms of present time are very indefinite 
and may be applied to past, present, and future. 



FORMATION OF VERBS. 



55 



Infinitive verb, 
To have gone. 



PRIOR-PRESENT TIME. 

Have gone. 

May, can, must, might, could, would, or 
should have gone. 

PRIOR-FUTURE TIME. 

Shall or will have gone. (See Section 54.) 



Had gone. 



PRIOR-PAST TIME. 



PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 



Gone. 



COMPOUND PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

t Having gone. 



PAST TIME. 

(I once) went ; or, (7) went (yesterday.) 



VERBAL ARCH, or ARCH OF TIME. 




F«a? . Past. 
L©*«U 



Prior past T att 
They bad loved. 



56 



FORMATION OF VERBS. 



ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 
To be carefully examined, but not committed to memory. 
TO LOVE. TO HAVE LOVED. 

PRESENT. PRIOR-PRESENT. 



Love. 

May, can, &c, love. 

FUTURE. 

Shall or will love. 



Have loved. 
May have loved. 

PRIOR-FUTURE. 

Shall or will have loved 



Loved. 



PAST. 



TO BE LOVED. 

PRESENT. 

Be loved. 
May be loved. 



PRIOR-PAST. 

Had loved. 

TO HAVE BEEN LOVED. 
PRIOR-PRESENT. 

Have been loved. 
May have been loved. 



FUTURE. PRIOR-FUTURE. 

Shall or will be loved. Shall or will have been loved. 



PAST. 

Were loved. 



PRESENT. 



Loving. 
Being loved. 



prior-past. 
Had been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

PERFECT. COMPOUND PERFECT. 

Loved. Having loved. 

Been loved. 



Having been loved. 



EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

(See Section 22.) 

The moon arose and will shine brightly. 
You came and find all things prepared. 



FOEMS OF VERBS. 57 

The senate passed the bill and had adjourned the same 
day. 

We ought to live and to have learned. 

He might have improved rapidly, and might write a fine 
hand. 

They had purchased the goods and have removed them. 

Philip loved and has obeyed his mother. 

The stage neither stopped nor delays for passengers. 

His arm may be dislocated, or has been broken by the fall. 

To love vice and to have hated virtue gratify a debased 
heart. (See Section 74.) 



AGEEEMENT OF VEEBS WITH 
THEIR SUBJECTS. 

Note. — Teachers can either adopt the following, or use the usual 
rule found at the close of the Appendix. 

29. Neither principal nor auxiliary verbs ever 
vary from the preceding regular forms to agree 
with their subjects, except in the following in- 
stances. (See Section 53, I. II 

I. When a verb of present time has no auxi- 
liary, and has a singular subject (/and thou ex- 
cepted), it takes an additional s or es : as, "John 
runs.' 1 " Time flies." " Man lives. 11 " It rains. 1 '' 

Do and have, without other auxiliaries, with 
singular subjects (I and thou excepted), always 
become does and has : as, "Jane does. 11 "He 
does go." " She has been." 



58 FOKMS OF VERBS. 

Note. — In grave or solemn style, th is used instead of « or es : as, 
" John runneth," "It raineth," "She doth," "He hath come." 

II. In the present, the verb be, without another 
auxiliary, becomes am with I, art w T ith thou, is 
with any other singular subject, and are with 
any plural subject : as, " I am." " I am loving." 
"Thou art" "Thou art taught." "He is." 
" The man is gone." " They are loved." 

In the past, were becomes wast with thou, and 
was with any other singular subject : as, " Thou 
wast" "Thou wast seen." "It was." "The 
boy was." "I was." 

Note. — You, when it stands for a singular name, takes toas. 

III. When a verb has the pronoun thou for its 
subject, it takes an additional st or est: as, 
"Thou departest" "Thou diedst" 

If there be an auxiliary, it takes the st or est, 
while the principal verb retains its regular form : 
as, "Thou mayst work." "Thou shalt know." 
" Thou canst have." " Thou didst come." 

But when a verb is used in commanding, en- 
treating, exhorting, or permitting , it takes the 
regular form of present time with either thou, ye, 
or you: as, u Depart thou." u Be thou." u Be 
ye loved." u Do you be." 

Note. — Thou must, shalt, vnlt, art, are peculiar in form. 



FORMS OF VEBBS. 59 

RECAPITULATION OF EXAMPLES UNDER THE 
EXCEPTIONS. 

(.7b be carefully examined, but not committed to memory.) 

SINGULAR SUBJECTS. 

John loves — does — does love — has — has loved — has 
been — has been loved — has been loving. 

John is — is loved — is loving — was — was loved — was 
loving. 

I am — am loved — am loving — was — was loved — was 
loving. 

PLURAL SUBJECTS. 

Men are — are loved — are loving. 

SINGULAR OR PLURAL SUBJECTS. 

You was or were — was or were loved — was or were 
loving. 

Note. — As the termination th and the pronoun thou are now sel- 
dom used, except in grave discourse or in poetry, it is unnecessary 
to repeat here the examples in which they occur. 

Correct and parse the following 

EXAMPLES. 

They commends her. 

Joseph were respected. 

You shouldst go. 

All has a talent to improve. 

Virtue are the universal charm. 

Compassion prompt us to relieve the wants of others. 

Thou shall improve. 

No man canst be active in disquieting others, who do 
not, at the same time, disquiets himself. 

Tempers thou the vivacity of youth with a proper mix- 
ture of serious thought. 



60 FORMS OF VEEBS. 

The spirit of true religion are social, kind, and cheerful. 

Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. 

So much both of ability and merit are seldom found. 

Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. 

He need not proceed in such haste. 

They wilt have written when the mail arrive. 

That man hadst broken a solemn pledge. 

And the fame of this person, and of his wonderful ac- 
tions, were diffused throughout the country. 

Has thou no better rule of conduct ? 

Alas ! I are undone ! 

Coming through the meadow, John find some pretty 
flowers and pluck them for a nosegay. 

These dwells in valleys, those roams the lofty mountains. 

By some imprudence, he were deeply involved in debt. 

What madness move the wretch? 

How old are thou ? 

The lady said to her daughter, " Hastenest thou, or we 
shalt be lost!" 

I sings of noble deeds. 

Having waited long, they finally departeth. 

I were anxious to hear the famous orator. 



SPECIAL RULES. 

RELATION OF PRONOUNS. 

30. Pronouns have the same relation that the 
nouns or pronouns they represent would have in 
the same place : as, u Julius performed his task." 
"Boys love their sports." "/ who am writing 
was there." "Thou that leadest Joseph like a 
flock." 



SENTENCES. 61 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

Thou who loves wisdom. 

I who speaks from experience. 

What is the reason that our language is less refined than 
those of Spain, Italy, or France ? 

I saw Robert, he who we met in the city yesterday. 

Every man must judge of their own feelings. 

The crown had it in their power to give such rewards as 
they thought proper. 

Thou that dwells in the mountains, art old and care- 
worn. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, which were with her in the 
house, and put them upon Jacob. 

Let each esteem others better than themselves. 



SENTENCES. 

31. A Sentence is a series of words making 
complete sense. 

Sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence has only one subject and one 
finite verb: as, "The earth revolves." "The 
silver moon rides majestically." 

A compound sentence is two or more simple 
sentences united together : as, " The silver moon 
appears, and rides majestically above the clouds." 

Each division of a compound sentence is a 
clause, or member of the sentence. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put 
together. 



62 CONNECTED WORDS. 

32. An infinitive verb, a sentence, or a clause, 
when it is the subject of a verb, has the same 
relation to the verb, or to nouns and pronouns, . 
as a singular noun: as, "To see is pleasant." 
" That my friend should suffer, gives me pain." 

Note. — Sections 32, 33, 34, 35, cannot be violated, in the use of 
verbs, except in the few instances mentioned in Section 29, I. II. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

To read with propriety are pleasing and important at- 
tainments. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of 
all men. 

To do unto others as we would that they, under similar 
circumstances, should do unto us, constitute the great prin- 
ciples of virtue. 

Promising without due consideration, often produce a 
breach of promise. 

A desire to excel others in learning and virtue are com- 
mendable. 



CONNECTED WOEDS. 

33. Two or more infinite verbs or clauses, or 
nouns and pronouns, connected by and, have the 
same relation to verbs, nouns, and pronouns, as a 
single plural noun : as, " To agonize and to suffer 
are severe." "Philip and his son come with 
their well filled baskets." (See Section 46.) 



CONNECTED WO EDS. 63 

Note. — And is frequently implied or understood. (See Section 
40.) 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

To fear God, and to keep his commandments, bespeaks a 
great and noble mind. 

Both life and health is uncertain. 

To advise the ignorant, relieve the needy, and comfort 
the afflicted, constitutes an important part of the duties of 
the pious. 

Sincerity and truth forms the basis of every virtue. 

To be prosperous and to be happy, requires attention to 
our affairs. 

Why is redness and heat in fire? 

Patience .and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

34. If the nouns or pronouns, connected by 
and, are all singular, and limited by each or 
every, they have the same relation to ^erbs, 
nouns, and pronouns, that one of them would 
have if standing alone : as, " Every day and 
every hour brings its trials." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

Every thought, every word, and every action, are to be 
remembered in judgment, whether they be good or evil. 

Each leaf, each spire of grass, each object in nature, pro- 
claim the power of their Creator. 

Every one of the children, and even every man, were 
alarmed in view of their danger. 

35. Infinitive verbs or clauses, or singular nouns 
and pronouns, connected by or or nor, have a 



64 VERBS AND PARTICIPLES. 

singular relation to verbs, nouns, and pronouns ; 
but if either of the connected nouns or pronouns 
be plural, they have a plural relation : as, " To 
write gracefully, or to read with propriety, is his 
highest attainment." " Neither she nor Thomas 
was there." " William, Mary, or the cousins, 
intend to return." 

Note. — Or and nor are often understood. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

Isaac or Solomon stand alone. 

Neither place nor time were afforded. 

He, they, or we, is guilty. 

To despise the poor, or to insult the unfortunate, give 
evidence of depraved hearts. 

Speaking impatiently to servants ; or anything that be- 
trays inattention, or ill humor, are certainly criminal 
offences. 

Man's happiness or misery depend very much on his 
own exertion. 

Neither fame nor honors is sufficient to satisfy the im- 
mortal mind. 



VEEBS AND PAETICIPLES. 

36. As the perfect participle and the verb of 
past time are sometimes unlike in their forms, 
care must be taken that the one be not used 
for the other : as, done for did, become for be- 



VERBS AND PARTICIPLES. 65 

came, chose for chosen. " The letter wrote yes- 
terday, is mailed/' for il written yesterday." 

The same error must also be avoided in form- 
ing the compound perfect participle, and the verb 
of prior-present, or prior-past time: as, "John 
has went,' 1 for "has gone;' 1 "had arose," for 
"had arisen;" "having threw" for "having 
thrown;" "having took" for "having taken;" 
"was knew" for "was known;" "has been did," 
for "has been done." 

In forming verbs, in such cases, the perfect 
participle is never used, except after the auxi- 
liaries, have or has, had or hadst, and thte varia- 
tions of be ; as seen in the examples above. 

Note. — The distinction between a perfect participle and a verb 
of past time, when they differ, is clearly made, by the method of 
forming them, in Section 28. (See also Section 58.) 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

You have came too late. 

The cars run off the track yesterday and given much 
trouble. 

She has forsook her child. 

The bird having flew away, the hunter pursuedit. 

John has went with his companion. 

Thou hadst drew the picture. 

It has fell. 

They will have swore falsely. 

Her letter is wrote. 

My flowers are took. 

6* 



66 SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 

I seen her book, torn and soiled. 
Having began, she seemed pleased. 
We done the work. 
That girl had grew rapidly. 

Samson had slew many men, he had smote them with a 
jawbone. 

Your coat is much wore. 
When the moon shall have rose. 



POSITION OF SUBJECT. 

37. The subject is, usually, placed before the 
verb ; but sometimes comes after it ; or between 
the auxiliary and the principal verb : as, " Re- 
member thoio /" " Where am IV " Can he re- 
main there ?" " Were you safe ?" " Has Moses 
come ?" " Whom shall I send ?" " There stand 
the monuments of his power." 

POSITION OF OBJECT. 

38. The object commonly follows the verb; but 
sometimes precedes it: as, "Whom do you seek?" 
"Me glory summons to the martial scene?" "The 
rolls of fame I will not now explore." "Him 
they released." "His son they slew." "What 
does he desire?" 



OMISSIONS. 67 

THEM AND THOSE. 

39. The pronoun them should never be used 
for the definitive adjective those: as, "He saw 
them men/' for " He saw those men." " Neither 
of them two speakers is eloquent/' for " of those, 
two." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Give me them apples. 

Did you see them samples of beautiful silk? 
Them playful children are in the garden. 
In them days came John the Baptist. 
Charles returned them marbles to his brother. 

OMISSIONS. 

40. In composition, to avoid repetitions and to 
express ideas briefly, words are frequently omit- 
ted that properly belong to the grammatical con- 
struction. By supplying these omissions, in pars- 
ing, many apparent difficulties will be removed. 

EXAMPLES. 

Charles, let us go home ; that is, Charles, let thou us to 
go to home. 

I saw all but him — but saw not him. 

There is none good but one — but one is good. 

Who did this? I — I did it. 

He can read better than I — than I can read. 

I have seen and heard him frequently — and have heard. 



68 CHANGES OF 

This day I bought a horse — on this day. 

Last year he went to Europe — in the last year. 

The Lord do that which seemeth him good — seemeth to 
him. 

Days, weeks, months, and years have fled — days and 
weeks and months. 

Wo ! is me — wo ! is to me. Ah me ! — Ah ! to me. 

He works all day — all through the day, or, through all 
the day. 

Whose book is that? It is John's — John's book 

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease; 

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 

— some place it in ease — and contentment these call it. 

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean! — roll on thy 
way, 

CHANGES OF PAETS OF SPEECH. 

41. (a) Names sometimes perform the office of 
adjectives: as, "A cloth coat;" "a silver thim- 
ble ;" " a gold pen ;" " a brick wall." 

( b ) Verbs are often used as names : as ; "A 
dead calm/ 9 " your interest ;" "a broad sweep/ 7 
" a deep cut/' . " do not disturb his quiet." 

(c) Verbs also become adjectives: as, (( A 
calm day;" "a quiet haven;" u still waters;" 
"in like manner;" "a long distance." 

( d ) Participles are sometimes used for 
names: as, "A lovely being/' "a good under- 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 69 

standing;" " beautiful writing; 11 " in the begin- 
ning ;" " from the rising of the tide." 

(e) Adjectives often assume the form of 
names: as, "The chief good/ 1 "a million of 
men;" "the author of evil; 17 "the bad are un- 
happy." 

(/) Definitive Adjectives sometimes par- 
take of the nature of adverbs: as, "More wisely;" 
" much less; 1 ' "not any greater danger." 

(g) Adverbs, under some circumstances, be- 
come names: as, "Yesterdays paper*" "to-day's 
news ;" " the business of to-morrow. 11 

(h) Conjunctions occasionally become ad- 
verbs: as, "He came then, and not before;" 
" she died not long since. 11 {See also Sec. 17, Note.) 

( i ) Conjunctions and Prepositions are often 
used interchangeably, the one for the other : as, 
"Man toils for wealth;" "He paused, for he 
could speak no longer." " You have labored since 
noon;" " Since life is short, let us improve it." 

From these examples, it is evident, that the 
sense and particular connection are the only cer- 
tain guides in determining the part of speech to 
which a word belongs. 



70 GENERAL EXAMPLES. 

GENERAL EXAMPLES. 

(To be corrected and parsed,) 

See Sections 5, 6, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 
34, 35, 36, 39, 41. {The figures below refer to Sections.) 

6. 41, g. 29 

To-morrows wisdom mayest prove thee simple to-day. 

30 29 41, b 

Consider every end, that they are but the end of a 
41, d 
beginning. 

29 41, d 

I live, move, are conscious : what shall bar my being ? 

29 

In what manner he succeeded are unknown to me. 

20 39 

The man who I found, had perished in them snowy moun- 
tains. 

m 29 41, e 

Not a breath disturb the deep serene. 

33 18 

Time and chance happeneth to all man ; but every person 

29 20 

do not consider whom govern these powerful causes. 

20 29, 80 27 

To do good to they that hates us, and, not on no occa 

33 33 

sion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a christian. 

39 6 29 

The hand that culled them flower's are gone. 

35 41, b 

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

30 29 

Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by 
the duties of morality and religion. 

20 

I could not avoid considering they, in some degree, as an 

22 22, 40 

enemy to me ; and he as a suspicious friend. 



GENERAL EXAMPLES. 71 

14 29 22 

The nations they shalt learn war no more, and have esta- 
blished a universal peace. 

34 34 

Each day and each hour bring with them responsibili- 
ties. 

29 29 41, c 

Happy are thou, Israel ! Who art like unto thee, 
people ! 

41, b 24 

. What can be the reason of the committee having delayed 
this business? 

29 16 

There is in that fragrant pot of roses several opening 

37 

buds. 

36 18 41, e 
I have often saw those kind of fruit. 

22 27 

Planets govern not the soul, nor guided not the destinies 
of man. 

22 

Man, thou hast a social spirit, and are deeply indebted 

41, e 

to thy kind. 

22, 40 

I refer to no other than he. 

30, 29 6 

! thou who dries the mourners tear ! 

25 

Whose gray top shall tremble, him descending. 

25 

Him being slain, the whole army retreated. 

6 35. 29 f 41, b 

Mans happiness, or misery, are, in a great measure, put 

30 

into their own hands. 

29 22, 40 

Never was any men so ignorant as them. 

36 22 

The sun has threw his rays, beautifully and bright, 
across the plains. 



72 GENERAL EXAMPLES. 

30, 29 41, b 29 

Thou who has been a witness of the fact, can give an 
account of it. 

18 

Full fathom five thy father lies; 

29 

Of his bones are coral made ; 

30, 29 

Those are pearls, that was his eyes ; 

14 

Nothing of him that doth fade. — Shakspeare. 

41, c 14 

The masons desiring to have a level wall, they level it 

41, a 41, 6 
with a spirit level. 

24 30 

He is averse to the nation involving themselves in 
another war. 

41, b 22 

He saw his plight, nor fears the thunders roar, 

22 

He threw the rope and draws him safe on shore. 
The lovers plight their vows. 

29 

In proportion as either of these two qualities are want- 
ing, the language is imperfect. 

22 32 

To live soberly, righteously, and pious, are important 

32 
duties. 



PART SECOND. 



SPECIAL RULES AND OB- 
SERVATIONS. 



NAMES OK NOUNS. 

42. When two or more names, referring to the 
same individual, as the possessor, follow each 
other in close succession, the apostrophe must, 
generally, be added. to the last name only; espe- 
cially if the object owned be expressed : as, 
" That monster, Satan, the fallen angel's power." 
" "Washington, the President of the United States' 
address." 

But when the names refer to several indi- 
viduals, each must have the apostrophe : as, 
" Samuel's, John's, and the girl's books." " Our 
Lord's and the Apostle's words." 

Note. — Grammarians differ in regard to this rule. See "Frazee's 
Grammar," R. IV.; "Murray's Grammar/' R. X., Note 1. 

7 r73) 



74 VERB AND SUBJECTS. 

43. When extent and duration are connected 
in the same simple sentence, the extent should be 
placed before the duration : as, " But now com- 
mandeth all men every where to repent/' " This 
has been known to all men of every age." 

EXAMPLES FOE CORRECTION. 

Beyond the bounds of time and space. 

The effectiveness of the pulpit has declined among us, 
within the last fifty years, to an alarming extent. 

From the days of Samuel to the days of Paul, the history 
of the Jewish and Christian Church speaks the same lan- 
guage. 

And yet this scheme, for more than six centuries, gave 
law to the world. 

In every composition, what interests the imagination, and 
touches the heart, pleases all ages and all nations. 

VEEBS. 

44. The verb be, and some others, if preceded 
by a subject or object, require a corresponding 
subject or object after them, when both words 
signify the same thing: as, "It is I! 1 "We 
know it to be them. 11 "He was crowned king. 7 ' 
(See Note under Examples, Section 20.) 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION 

And they are them which testify of me. 

Who did they represent him to be? {Transpose.) 



VEEB AND SUBJECTS. 75 

They supposed it was him. 

After all their'professions, is it possible to he them ? 
He is not the person whom it seemed he was. ( Transpose.) 
It might have been him, but there is no proof of it. 
And whom think ye that I am ? {Transpose.) 
Can it be me? 
We thought it was thee. 

I know not whether it were them who conducted the busi- 
ness ; but I am certain it was not him. 

45. A verb, having more than one subject, 
may conform to either ; but preference should be 
given to that which is most naturally its subject: 
as, " The wages of sin is death." " His meat was 
locusts and wild honey." "I or thou art to 
blame." " Neither he nor I am responsible." 

Note. — It would be better to change the form of the last two sen- 
tences, thus : " Either I am to blame, or thou art." " He is not re- 
sponsible, nor am I." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

You or I are disappointed. (See Note above.) 

The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. 

The souPs calm sunshine and the heartfelt joy are vir- 
tue's prize. 

This report were the means of injuring the mayor, alder- 
men, and common council. 

So great an affliction to him was his wicked sons. 

They is the strength of the union. 

Ten added to ten are a score. 

The breadth of it were fifty cubits. 

The wall are ten feet high. 

Ten feet are the breadth of the floor. 



76 VERB AND SUBJECTS. 

46. Two or more singular nouns, which refer 
to the same person or thing, connected by and, 
expressed or implied, have the same relation to 
verbs, nouns, and pronouns, as one singular 
noun : as, " That great statesman and hero is no 
more." (See Section 33.) 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Pliny the philosopher and naturalist have greatly en- 
riched science. 

That able scholar and critic have been eminently useful. 

To them, this spurner of gold, this rejector of honors, 
this trampler on earth, are fools and madmen. 

47. Verbs of giving, asking, teaching, and 
some others, may have two objects : as, " Give 
me 2b pen" "Ask him the news!' " She taught 
them astronomy" " Send her a letter" 

Note. — In such expressions a preposition is understood : as, "Give 
to me a pen/' &c, (See Section 40.) 

48. Every subject, except such as are included 
in Sections 25 and 26, must have a finite verb ex- 
pressed or implied. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

There, too, the bold Indian girl, with graceful bearing 
and lustrous eyes, in glittering dress of painted skins. 

Heretofore the brave soldiers, who have contributed so 
much to the glory of our country, liable to be cruelly flogged 
for even slight misdemeanors. 



INFINITIVE VERBS. 77 

The ignis-fatuus, like a friendly light, but it betrays the 
unwary traveller down to the secret chambers of death. 

Beings who never smile but at the tears of others ; whose 
joy consists in the wreck of human happiness ; and, w T hose 
onlv music is the voice of lamentation and wo. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are 
so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect 
genuine merit. 

49. Every finite verb must have a subject ex- 
pressed or implied. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Never was a governor more necessary to a province ; but 
would have been almost impossible for the king to have 
selected one less qualified for the station. 

With regard to created beings, is a duration has a be- 
ginning, but will never have an end. 

The magnificent achievement won the admiration which 
was due to an enterprise seemed more divine than human. 

Ignorant of the great principles of religion, and of its 
power to save, and wear it as a cloak to hide the deformity 
within. 

As well might the oyster attempt to pass judgment on 
the towering eagle, flying on the wings of the storm, and 
mounts and mingles with the new born light. 

50. Infinite verbs require the sign to after 
dare, "to challenge;" and also after dare, "to 
venture/' when it refers to past or future time: 
as, " He dared the enemy to meet him." " They 
dared to leap the chasm." "Witt you dare to 
face the tyrant?" (See Section 10.) 

7* 



78 DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 



EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Dare me fire a gun. 

He did not dare cross the rushing stream. 

You will not dare say to the face what you so freely utter 
behind the back. 

You have dared throw more than a suspicion upon my 
character. 

He will not dare attack his adversary. 

Although I felt myself honored by the offer, yet I dared 
not accept it. 

He dares not to touch a hair of Catline. 



DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 

51. Verbs of past time have no reference to 
the present; but verbs of prior-present time refer 
to a past period, which immediately precedes, or 
includes the present. 

EXAMPLES. 

I have completed the work more than a week ago — 
should be, I completed, &c. 

The Lord hath given and the Lord hath taken away — 
The Lord gave, &c. 

I remember the family more than twenty years — I have 
remembered. 

He has seen the coronation at Westminster last summer 
— He saw. 

Charles has lately finished the building — Charles lately 
finished. 

They have labored on a farm until very recently — They 
labored. 



DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 79 

This man has been sick a short time since — was sick. 

When in Italy, I have visited Rome — I visited. 

I read Virgil several times — I have read. 

In the beginning, God has created the heavens and the 
earth — God created. 

Philosophers have made great discoveries in the last cen- 
tury — Philosophers made. 

Philosophers made great discoveries the present century 
— Philosophers have made. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Pharaoh and his men of war have been swept away with 
the waters of destruction. 

Dr. Morse says the forts of the Romans in England have 
been universally square. 

The northern parts of North America were known to us 
but about two centuries, yet, during that time, no less than 
forty-five earthquakes occurred. 

The ancients have understood the art of making glass. 

I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered, when I 
have been in trouble. 

This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and 
shown to strangers, for more than fifty years past. 

This mode of expression has been formerly much ad- 
mired. 

52. When an infinitive verb refers to an action 
or event as prior to that of the verb which it fol- 
lows, the prior-present form must be used ; other- 
wise the present : as, " You appear to have been 
intoxicated yesterday/' "You appear to be in- 
toxicated now." " It gratified me to see my 
friend/' 



80 DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 

Note. — The above is a general rule : the following special rule 
from Murray, is very convenient in some cases : "All verbs expres- 
sive of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be fol- 
lowed by the present, and not the prior-present of infinitive verbs." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

General Washington employed several cruisers to have 
intercepted the ships of the enemy. 

They left this monument to have preserved the memory 
of their voyage. 

He is said to write much in former years. 

The last week I intended to have gone. 

From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the 
Holy Scriptures with great attention. 

She ordered her waiter to have returned home. 

Frances ought to go yesterday. 

I intended to have spent only a few days here, and then 
to have returned to Montreal. 

He appears to make a clean sweep, wherever he has 
been. 

53. I. When uncertainty and futurity are both 
to be expressed by a verb of present time, it 
takes the regular form with any subject what- 
ever : as ; 

If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself. 

If he continue impenitent, he must suffer. 

He will maintain his principles, though he lose his 
estate. 

Whether he be successful or not, his intention is laud 
able. 

Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 

Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 

Note. — This Section is an exception to Section 29, I. II. III. 



WILL AND SHALL. 81 

II. When the verb were conveys an idea of 
uncertainty, it becomes wert with thou, and re- 
mains unchanged with all other singular sub- 
jects: as, "If thou wert he." "Wert thou he." 
"If it were possible, they would deceive the 
elect." {See Section 29, II) 

Note. — The peculiar forms of this Section are, generally, preceded 
by one of the following conjunctions: if, though, unless, except, lest, 
that, whether, &c. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Unless thou learnest faster, thou wilt be no scholar. 

If he does but touch the hills, they shall smoke. 

No power, except it was given from above. 

Though he slays me, yet will I trust in him. 

Though our Savior were rich, yet for our sakes he be- 
came poor. 

Though He were a son, yet learned he obedience, by the 
things which he suffered. 

If he does submit, it will be from necessity. 

Unless he acts prudently, he will not accomplish his 
purpose. 

What though the field is lost? all is not lost ! 

Though he do submit, yet he is not convinced. 

WILL AND SHALL. 

54. In the prior-future, will should not be 
used with I or we ; nor shall with any other sub- 
ject, unless that subject be preceded by if, 
though, unless, &c. 



82 



WILL AND SHALL. 



EXAMPLES. 



Incorrect. 
I will have loved. 
We will have stood. 
Thou shalt have been 
He shall have found. 
Charles shall have come. 
The men shall have gone. 
You shall have learned. 
If thou ivilt have been. 
Though he will have found. 
Unless Charles will have come. 
Except you will have learned. 
If I ivill have loved. 



Correct. 
I shall have loved. 
We ^aZZ have stood. 
Thou wilt have been. 
He will have found. 
Charles will have come. 
The men will have gone. 
You will have learned. 
If thou s&aZtf have been. 
Though he shall have found. 
Unless Charles shall have come. 
Except you shall have learned. 
If I shall have loved. 



EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION". 

After we will have come, you may return. 

He shall have completed the work by midsummer. 

If he will have completed the work by midsummer. 

I will have returned. 

We will have improved. 

The men shall have finished their labors. 

Though the birds will have builded their nests. 

Unless I will have arrived. 

Provided we will have rented the house. 



55. After I or we, will denotes resolution and 
promising, and shall simply foretels : as, "I will 
grant your request, but will deny his." "We 
will profit by your advice, and strive to improve." 
" I shall see them next week." " We shall begin 
in the morning." 



• 



GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. 83 

After any other subject, will only foretels, and 
shall promises, commands, or threatens : as, 
" Thou wilt soon regret it." " James will depart 
to-morrow, and they will immediately follow 
him." "You shall inherit the land." "Thou 
shalt do justice and love mercy." "They shall 
account for it." 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Though he slay me, yet shall I trust in him. 

The officer shall have difficulty in keeping the men quiet. 

Shall you sell your soul for gold? No, I shall re- 
store it. 

Here you shall see a river of considerable magnitude. 

Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days 
of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for 
ever. 

I will be drowned, nobody shall help me. 

i 

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. 

56. In the use of words and phrases which, in 
point of time, relate to each other, a due regard 
to that relation should be observed. All the 
parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
other : a regular and dependent construction, 
throughout, should be carefully preserved. As 
a general rule, " Observe what the sense neces- 
sarily requires." 



84 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. 

EXAMPLES. 

I am the Lord, that maketh all things : that stretch forth 
the heavens alone — It should read, that maketh, that 
stretcheth ; or, that make, that stretch. 

If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone 
astray — Either has a hundred, and is gone ; or, have a 
hundred, and be gone 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

The oak mocketh at the fury of the storm, and rejoices 
in summer sunshine. 

I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I 
arrived at the city. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they con- 
tinue with me now three days. 

John will earn his wages, when his service is com- 
pleted. 

The hero returns, like a triumphant conqueror, was 
drawn in a chariot of four ; having worn the crown of vic- 
tory, and was everywhere greeted with the acclamations of 
the people. 

It was when Eve saw that the tree had been pleasant to 
the eyes, that she has taken of the fruit thereof; by which 
act she loses Eden, and brings death into our world. 

I have resided at Washington six months, and seen the 
President last week. 

The next new ye^'s day, I shall be at school three 
years. 

To lie in my bertn, I could not ; sit still, when out of it, 
was impossible. 



PARTICIPLES. 85 



PAETICIPLES. 

57. If either a, an, or the, stands before a pre- 
sent participle, in sentences like the following, of 
must be placed immediately after it : as, " By 
the observing of which." "By the preaching of 
repentance/' "From a rising of the tide." 

Kote. — In such instances, the definitive and the preposition must 
both be used, or both omitted. (See Section 41, d.) 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

This may prove the sealing his eyes in perpetual dark- 
ness. 

What! threaten me with telling of the king? 

This principle manifests itself in the acquiring money; 
in keeping of it ; and in the fixing the heart upon it. 

By a continual mortifying our corrupt affections. 

This was, in fact, a converting the deposit to his own 
use. 

58. A verb is said to be Kegular, when its 
prior-present infinitive adds d or ed to the pre- 
sent: as, present, "to love;' prior-present, "to 
have loved." 

All others are called Irregular : as, present, 
il to go;" prior-present, "to have gone." 



86 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



The following is a list of 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Note. — Those verbs which are sometimes used in the regular form 
are marked with an R. 



Present 


Prior-present 


Perfect 


Verb of 


Infin. Verb. 


Infinitive Verb. 


Participle. 


Past Time. 


To abide, 


To have abode, 


abode, 


abode. 


To arise, 


To have arisen, 


arisen, 


arose. 


To awake, 


To have awoke, R. 


awoke, R. 


awoke, R. 


To be, 


To have been, 


been, 


were. 


To bear, 


To have borne, born, 


borne, born, 


bore. 


To beat, 


To have beat, beaten, 


beat, beaten, 


beat. 


To become, 


To have become, 


become, 


became. 


To begin, 


To have begun, 


begun, 


began, begun. 


To bend, 


To have bent, R. 


bent, R. 


bent, R. 


To bereave, 


To have bereft, R 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


To beseech, 


To have besought, 


besought, 


besought. 


To bid, 


To have bidden, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


bade, bid. 


To bind, 


To have bound, 


bound, 


bound. 


To bite, 


To have bit, bitten, 


bit, bitten, 


bit. 


To bleed, 


To have bled, 


bled, 


bled. 


To blow, 


To have blown, R. 


blown, R. 


blew, R. 


To break, 


To have broken, broke, 


broken, broke, 


broke. 


To breed, 


To have bred, 


bred, 


bred. 


To bring, 


To bave brought, 


brought, 


brought. 


To build, 


To have built, R. 


built, R. 


built, R. 


To burst, 


To have burst, R 


burst, R. 


burst, R. 


To buy, 


To have bought, 


bought, 


bought. 


To cast, 


To have cast, 


cast, 


cast, 


To catch, 


To have caught, R. 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


To chide, 


To have chid, 


chid, 


chid. 


To choose, 


To have chosen, chose, 


chosen, chose, 


chose. 


To cleave, to ad- 








here, R. 








To cleave, to 

split, 


j To have cleft, clove, 
] cloven, 


J cleft, clove, cloven. 


, cleft. 


To cling, 


To have clung, 


clung, 


clung. 


To clothe, 


To have clad, R. 


clad, R. 


R. 


To come, 


To have come, 


come, 


came, come. 


To cost, 


To have cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


To creep, 


To have crept, 


crept, 


crept. 


To cut, 


To have cut, 


cut, 


cut. 





IRREGULAR 


VERBS. 


a 


Present 


Prior-preser.it 


Perfect 


Verb of 


Infin. Verb. 


Infinitive Verb. 


Participle. 


Past Time, 


To dare, to ven. \ 
ture, ) 


To have dared, R. 


dared, R. 


durst, R. 


To dare, to chal- 








lenge, R. 








To deal, 


To have dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


To dig, 


To have dug, R. 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


To do, 


To have done, 


done, 


did. 


To draw, 


To have drawn, 


drawn, 


drew. 


To drive, 


To have driven, drove, 


driven, drove 


drove. 


To drink, 


To have drank, 


drank, 


drank. 


To dwell, 


To have dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


To eat, 


To have eaten, eat, 


eaten, eat, 


ate, eat. 


To engrave, 


To have engraven, R. 


engraven, R. 


II. 


To fall, 


To have fallen, 


fallen, 


fell. 


To feed, 


To have fed, 


fed, 


fed. 


To feel, 


To have felt, 


felt, 


felt. 


To fight, 


To have fought, 


fought, 


fought. 


To find, 


To have fouud, 


fouud, 


found. 


To flee, 


To have fled, 


fled, 


fled. 


To fly, 


To have flown, 


flown, 


flew, 


To fling 


To have flung, 


flung, 


flung. 


To forget, 


To have forgot, for- 
gotten, 


[ forgot, forgotten, 


forgot. 


To forsake, 


To have forsaken, 


forsaken, 


forsook. 


To freeze, 


To have frozen, froze, 


frozen, froze. 


froze. 


To get, 


To have got, gotten, 


got, gotten, 


got. 


To gild, 


To have gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


To gird, 


To have girt, R. 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


To give, 


To have given, 


given, 


gave. 


To go, 


To have gone, 


gone, 


went. 


To grave, 


To have graven. R. 


graven, R 


R. 


To grind, 


To have ground, 


ground, 


ground. 


To grow, 


To have grown 


grown, 


grew. 


To have, 


To nave nad, 


had, 


had. 


To hang, to tah 


s 






away life. It. 








To hang, to sits 
pend. 


To have hung, 


hung, 


hung. 


To hew, 


To have hewn, R. 


hewn, R. 


R. 


To hide, 


To have hid, hidden. 


hid, hidden, 


hid. 


To hit, 


To have hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


To hold, 


To have held, 


held, 


held. 


To hurt, 


To have hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


To keep, 


To have kept, 


kept, 


kept. 


To knit, 


To hav<i knit, 


knit, 


knit. 



m 


I.BREGULi 


-B, VERBS. 




Present 


Prior-present 


Perfect 


Verb of 


Infin. Verb. 


Infinitive Verb. 


Participle. 


Piist Time. 


To know, 


To have known, 


known, 


knew. 


To lade, 


To have laden, R. 


laden, R. 


R. 


To lay, 


To have laid, 


laid, 


laid. 


To lead, 


To have led, 


led, 


led. 


To leave, 


To have left, 


left, 


left. 


To lend, 


To have lent, 


lent, 


lent. 


1 o let, 


To have let, 


let, 


let. 


To lie (down), 


To have lain, 


lain, 


lay. 


To load, 


To have laden, R. 


laden, R. 


R. 


To lose, 


To have lost, 


lost, 


lost. 


To make, 


To have made, 


made, 


made. 


To mean, 


To have meant, 


meant, 


meant. 


To meet, 


To have met, 


met, 


met. 


To mow, 


To have mown, R. 


mown, R. 


R. 


To pay, 


To have paid, 


paid, 


paid. 


To put, 


To have put, 


put, 


put. 


To quit, 


To have quit, R. 


quit, R. 


quit., R. 


To read, 


To have read, 


read, 


read. 


To rend, 


To have rent, 


rent, 


rent. 


To rid, 


To have rode, 


rode, 


rid. 


To ride, 


To have rid, 


rid, 


rode. 


To ring 


To have rung, 


rung, 


rung, rang. 


To rise, 


To have risen, 


risen, 


rose. 


To rive, 


To have riven, R. 


riven, R. 


R. 


To run, 


To have run, 


run, 


run, ran t 


To saw, 


To have sawn, R. 


sawn, R. 


R. 


To say, 


To have said, 


said, 


said. 


To see, 


To have seen, 


seen, 


saw. 


To seek, 


To have sought, 


sought, 


sought. 


To sell, 


To have sold, 


sold, 


sold. 


To send, 


To have sent, 


sent, 


sent. 


To set, 


To have set, 


set, 


set. 


To shake, 


To have shaken, 


shaken, 


shook. 


To shear, 


To have shorn, R. 


shorn, R 


R. 


To shed, 


To have shed, 


shed. 


shed. 


To shine, 


To have shone, R. 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


To shew (Pron. 

show), 
To show, 


[ To have shewn, 


shewn, 


shewn. 


To have shown, R, 


shown, R. 


R. 


To shoe, 


To have shod, 


shod, 


shod. 


To shoot, 


To have shot, 


shot, 


shot. 


To shrink, 


To have shrunk, 


shrunk. 


shrunk. 


To shred, 


To have shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


To shut, 


To have shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


To sing, 


To have sung, 


sung, 


sung. 



IEEEGTJLAE VEEBS. 



89 



Present 


Prior-present 


Perfect 


Verb of 


Infiyi. Verb. 


Infinitive Verb. 


Participle. 


Past Time. 


To sink, 


To have sunk, 


sunk, 


sunk. 


To sit, 


To have sat, 


sat, 


sat. 


To slay, 


To have slain, 


slain, 


slew. 


To sleep, 


To have slept, 


slept, 


slept. 


To slide, 


To have slid, R. 


slid, R. 


slid. R. 


To sliug, 


To have slung. 


slung, 


slung. 


To slink, 


To have slunk, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


To slit, 


To have slit, R. 


slit, R. 


slit, R, 


To smite, 


To have smitten, smit, 


smitten, smit. 


smote. 


To sow, 


To have sown, R. 


sown, R. 


R. 


To speak, 


To have spoken, spoke, 


spoken, spoke. 


spoke. 


To speed, 


To have sped, 


sped, 


sped. 


To spend, 


To have spent, 


spent, 


spent. 


To spill, 


To have spilt, R 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


To spin, 


To have spun, 


spun, 


spun. 


To spit, 


To have spit, 


spit, 


spit. 


To split, 


To have split, 


split, 


split. 


To spread, 


To have spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


To spring, 


To have sprung, 


sprung, 


sprung. 


To stand, 


To have stood, 


stood, 


stood. 


To steal, 


To have stole, stolen, 


stole, stolen, 


stole. 


To sting, 


To have stung, 


stung, 


stung. 


To stink, 


To have stunk, 


stunk, 


stunk 


To stick, 


To have stuck, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


To stride, 


To have strid, 


strid, 


strode, strid. 


To strike, 


To have struck, 


struck, 


struck. 


To string, 


To have strung, 


strung, 


strung. 


To strive, 


To have striven, R. 


striven, R. 


strove, R. 


To strow, 


To have strown, R. 


strown, R. 


R. 


To strew, R. 








To swear, 


To have sworn, 


sworn, 


swore. 


To sweat, 


To have sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


To swim, 


To have swum, 


swum, 


swum, swam. 


To swing, 


To have swung, 


swung, 


swung. 


To take, 


To have taken, 


taken, 


took. 


To teach, 


To have taught, 


taught, 


taught. 


To tear, 


To have torn, 


torn, 


tore. 


To tell, 


To have told, 


told, 


told. 


To think, 


To have thought, 


thought, 


thought. 


To thrive, 


To have thrived, 


thrived, 


throve, R. 


To throw, 


To have thrown, R. 


thrown, R. 


threw. R. 


To thrus% 


To have thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


To tread, 


To have trod, trodden, 


trod, trodden, 


trod. 


To wear, 


To have worn, 


worn, 


wore. 


To weave, 


To have woven .wove, R. woven, wove, R. 


wove, R. 



8* 



90 


PBONOUNS. 




Present 


Prior-present 


Perfect 


Verb of 


Infin. Verb. 


Infinitive Verb. 


Participle. 


Past Time. 


To weep, 


To have wept, 


wept, 


wept. 


To win, 


To have won, 


won, 


won. 


To wet, 


To have wet, R. 


wet, R. 


wet, R. 


To wind, 


To have wound, R. 


wound, R. 


wound, R. 


To work, 


To have wrought, R. 


wrought, R. 


wrought, R 


To wring, 


To have wrung, R. 


wrung, R. 


wrung, R. 


To write, 


To have written, 


written, 


wrote. 




OBSOLETE 


FORMS. 






Verbs of Past Time. 




Bare, 


drave, 


sank, 


sprang, 


brake, 


forgat, 


spake, 


stank, 


clave, 


gat, 


spat, 


sware. 


crew, 


sang, 








Perfect Participles. 




Bounden, 


holden, 


sitten, 


stricken, 


chidden, 


ridden, 


slidden, 


swollen, 


drunken, 


shapen, 


spitten, 


thriven, 


drunk, 


shaven, 


stridden, 


waxen. 




PBONOUNS. 






WHO AND 


WHICH. 





59. Who is applied to persons, but never to 
children, things, and brutes : as, "A man who 
died." " The lady who purchased a piano." 

Wliich is applied to children, animals, and 
things : as, " The child which came." " The bird 
which sings." " The cloak which I had." 

Which, however, is applied to persons, when 
we wish to distinguish one person of two, or a 



PRONOUNS. 91 

particular individual among many others : as, 
" Which of the two men ?" " Our Father, which 
art in heaven.'' 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Who of these men came to her assistance? 
The man which informed me was mistaken. 
The horse whom I rode. 

I saw the lady which sailed in yesterday's steamer. 
The house whom I bought. 

He was the most eloquent speaker which you ever 
heard. 

The tiger is a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 
Is this the child whom you found? 

60. It sometimes adds beauty and force to the 
compounds, whatsoever •, whichsoever, and whoseso- 
ever, to divide them by an intervening name : as ; 

What way soever I turn, death pursues me. 
On which side soever the king cast his eyes. 
Whose sins soever ye remit, they are remitted. 

Note. — In parsing, these divided words should be united into one 
word. 



92 ADJECTIVES. 

ADJECTIVES. 

61. Most adjectives are varied by three de- 
grees of comparison, called the positive, the com- 
parative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree expresses a quality as dis- 
tinct and positive: as ; "Wise," "good," "white," 
"red." 

The comparative degree expresses a quality 
greater or less in degree than the positive : as, 
"Wiser," "less wise/' "better," "whiter," "red- 
der." 

The superlative degree expresses a quality of 
the highest or lowest degree : as, "Wisest," "least 
wise," "best," "whitest," "reddest/ 

Some adjectives admit an imperfect degree, 
which expresses a quality slightly below the posi- 
tive. This degree always ends in ish: as, "Green- 
ish," "saltish," "blackish." 

The positive is usually changed to the compa- 
rative by adding r or er, or placing more or less 
before it ; and to the superlative by adding st or 
est, or placing most or least before it : as, 



Great, 


greater, 


greatest. 


Heroic, 


more heroic, 


most heroic. 


Wise, 


less "wisp, 


least wise. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 93 

A few adjectives are irregular in compari- 
son: as, 



Positive* 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, 


better, 




best. 


Bad or evil, 


worse, 




worst. 


Little, 


less, 




least. 


Much or many, 


more 




most. 


Near, 


nearer, 




nearest or next 


Old, 


older or 


elder, 


oldest or eldest. 


Late, 


later, 




latest or last. 



62. Adjectives that have in themselves a su- 
perlative signification do not properly admit of 
the comparative or superlative form superadded : 
as, 

Chief, extreme, perfect, right, 

universal, supreme, straight, square, &c. 

The following are, therefore, incorrect : — 

Chiefest, extremest, more perfect, 

most universal, more square, &c. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

The sun's rays are spreading to the most extreme bound- 
aries of the horizon. 

More perfect rapture never thrilled human bosom. 

This piece of timber is straighter than that. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man ; and should 
be his chiefest desire. 

This is the most universal preparation for every station 
of life. 



94 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the 
truest friendship. 

That block is squarer than the others. 

63. Double comparatives and superlatives should 
be avoided: as ; 

A worser conduct ; for, worse conduct. 
Lesser hopes ; for, less hopes. 
A more serener temper; for, more serene. 
The most straitest sect ; for, the straitest sect. 
A more superior work ; for, a superior work. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

He spoke in the most strongest terms. 
That piece of ice is more smoother than glass. 
The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 
The most pleasantest spot on earth is home. 
The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable 
than those of the imagination, or of sense. 

On the most loftiest mountains sno\v is ever found. 

64. When a comparison is made, either with 
adjectives or adverbs, and refers only to two per- 
sons or things, the eoinparative degree must be 
used; but when it refers to three or more, the 
superlative must be used : as, 

Love is stronger than death. 

The smaller of these two birds sings the more siveetly. 
John is the best boy in the class, and studies the most 
diligently, 

Note. — Good writers sometimes vary from this rule. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 95 



EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Of the two sisters, Mary is the oldest, and Eliza is the 
tallest. 

Which of those three oranges is the riper. 

He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. 

Her parents often praised her, but her mother the most 
frequently. 

Spring, summer, and autumn, are all pleasant; but I 
prefer the latter. 

65. When the comparative degree is used ; the 
latter term of comparison should not include the 
former : as, 

Gold is more valuable than all the other metals ; not, 
all the metals. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Job was more patient than all men. 
Youth is less burdened with care than any period of life. 
The regions around the poles are more seldom visited 
than any part of the globe. 

Jacob loved Joseph better than all his children. 

The ostrich is larger than any bird known to naturalists. 

66. When the superlative degree is used, the 
latter term of comparison should include the 
former : as, 

Hope is the most constant of all the passions ; not, of all 
the other passions. 



96 DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

An iceberg is the most splendid of all the other objects 
in the northern seas. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 

Rhode Island is the smallest of all the other states. 

Robert is the most modest of all his brothers. 

He spoke with so much propriety, that I understood him 
the best of all the others who spoke on the subject. 

67. Adjectives are, occasionally, used to qualify 
verbs, adverbs, other adjectives, clauses, or sen- 
tences : as, 

The wind blows cold. 

Full oft she came. 

The deep blue sky. 

To be a coward is disgraceful. 



DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

68. The definitive adjective a is used before 
words beginning with a consonant, or u long, and. 
before the word one: as, "A time," "a hand," 
" a union," " a unit," many a one." 

An is used before words beginning with a 
vowel, or silent h; and before words in which 
the h is sounded, when the accent is on the 
second syllable: as, "An ounce," "an atom/' 
" an hour," " an heroic poem," " an umpire." 



ADVERBS. 97 



EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

It was a enemy, not an friend, who did this. 
He waited a hour for a answer. 
She is reading an universal history. 
An union of sentiments is desirable. 



ADVERBS. 

69. Many adverbs are compared like adjec- 
tives : as, 



D ositive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


soon, 


sooner, 


soonest. 


often, 


often er, 


of ten est. 



Those ending in ly are, generally, compared by 
more and most, less and least : as, 

Wisely, more wisely, most wisely, 

wisely, less wisely, least wisely. 

70. The definitive adjective the, when applied 
to adverbs in the comparative and superlative de- 
grees, seems to lose its original character, and to 
become a part of the adverb : as, 

The more I examine it, the better I like it. 
You admire this the least of any. 

71. Adverbs are, generally, placed before ad- 

9 



98 ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES. 

jectives, after verbs, and often between the 
auxiliary and the principal verb : as, 

She is very good. 
Charles reads well. 
They had not come. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

You are left not alone to climb the arduous ascent. 

The vessel swiftly and securely glides before the gale. 

Some flowers very early bloom. 

A better instance than this scarcely could be found. 

He acted in somewhat a careless manner. 

The waves are rolling continually. 

Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tran- 
quil also. 

We cannot be engaged always. 

He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he be- 
came submissive. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

72. In using adverbs and adjectives, care 
should be observed not to substitute the one for 
the other : as, 

George writes beautiful; for, beautifully. 

He is miserably ; for, miserable. 

They came agreeable to promise; for, agreeably. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

How serious those leaden eyes dote on trifles ! 

The solitarily heron stands in the same lonely spot. 

He acted neither witty nor wise in commending ridicule. 



PEEPOSITIONS — CONJUNCTIONS. 99 

He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, but does not think 
very coherent. 

The conspiracy was the easier discovered from its being 
known to many. 

Samuel is an extreme dull scholar. 

Has not your father grown incapably of reasonably affairs? 

A thousand hearts beat happy, and all went merrily as a 
marriage bell. 

He had many virtues, and was exceeding beloved. 



PBEPOSITIONS. 

73. As the preposition among generally im- 
plies a number of things, it should not be used in 
connection with the definitive adjective every, 
which has a singular signification : as, 

This is known among every class of men ; better, among 
all classes, or, known to or by every class. 

Vice prevails among every grade of society ; better, in 
every grade, or, among all grades. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

74. When verbs are connected by a conjunc- 
tion, and the subject is not repeated, they must 
refer to the same time, have the same auxiliaries, 
expressed or implied, and follow the same form : 
but if there be a necessary change, in either of 



100 CONJUNCTIONS. 

these respects, or if the assertion pass from an 
affirmative to a negative, or the contrary, the 
subject must be repeated : as, 

John arose and followed him. 

They may go and may remain. 

She will live and die hoping. 

The girls are studious, and they will improve. 

He is wealthy, but he is not generous. 

He is not wealthy, but he is generous. 

Note. — Good writers sometimes vary from this rule. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Tears, like the rain-drops, may fall without measure, 

But rapture and beauty cannot recall. 

The latter will not only be inexpressive, but must also be 
monotonous and tiresome. 

They have rewarded him liberally, and could not do 
otherwise. 

He is not rich, but is respectable. 

He lives temperately, and should live temperately. 

He cannot swim, if he leaps out, yet thinks it the best 
course. 

Our season of improvement is short; and, whether used 
or not, will soon pass away. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily pro- 
duce virtue. 

Learning strengthens the mind ; and, if properly applied, 
will improve our morals too. 

If he choose to indulge in soliloquies, (and will be much 
inclined to do so,) he can relieve himself without disturbing 
others. 



C0EKESP0NDING CONJUNCTIONS. 101 



COEEESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. 

75. Some conjunctions require corresponding 
conjunctions to follow them ; so that the latter 
member of the sentence answers to the former : 
as, 

I. Though requires yet, or nevertheless : as, " Though he 
is old, yet he is active." 

II. Whether — or: as, " Whether ye eat or drink." 

III. Either — or: as, " They must either conquer, or be 
conquered." 

IV. Neither — nor: as, "Neither life nor death can part 
us." 

V. Both — and: as, " He is both proud and vain." 

VI. As — as: expressing a comparison of equality: as, 
" The sea is as calm as a quiet lake." 

VII. As — so: expressing a comparison of equality : as, 
"As thy day, so shall thy strength be." 

VIII. As — so: expressing a comparison of quality: as, 
"As the one dieth, so dieth the other." 

IX. So — as: with a verb expressing a comparison of 
quality: as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in 
thy sanctuary." 

X. So — as: with an adjective or adverb, and with or 
without a negative, to limit the degree by comparison : as, 
11 So far as he speaks the truth, I believe him." " Napo- 
leon was not so noble a commander as Washington." 

XI. So — as: expressing a consequence: as, "The 
waves were so high as to endanger the vessel." 

XII. So — that: expressing a consequence: as, " He is 
so frail that he can scarcely support himself." 

9* 



102 EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES. 



EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

The scenery from Quebec to Gaspe is so diversified and 
picturesque as you could well imagine. 

Whether upheld by strength, nor chance, nor fate. 

I cannot tell whether he will go nor stay. 

Either the clock and the watch runs too fast. 

Pompey was not so great a man or Caesar. 

Neither time or tide waits for our gratification. 

Neither the king or the queen was present. 

They are both ready or willing to undertake the journey. 

76. As is often improperly used for than, with 
the comparative degree of adjectives and ad- 
verbs: as, 

This book is larger as that ; for, than that. 
He would rather ride as walk ; for, than walk. 

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

Softer is the hide of the rhinoceros as the heart of de- 
riding unbelief. 

It is more pleasant to see a laughing cheek as a serious 
forehead. 

Better to be the vilest of the vile, in the hated company 
of men, as to live a solitary wretch, dreading and wanting 
all things. 

He was more eloquent, but not so learned as his prede- 
cessor. ( Transpose. ) 

77. EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES. 

1. All is well. All is quiet. 

2. Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned. 

3. It is I he seeks. It is me he seeks. 



EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES. 103 

4. A great many. A thousand years. 

5. Many a friend. 

6. Ten head of cattle. Five sail of the line. 

7. By this means. By that means. 

8. Every three hours. This three months. 

9. It is him you aim at. 

10. It is he you aim at. 

11. It is they that performed the work. 

12. Be it enacted. 

13. Green 6e the turf above thee. 

14. Upon the soil they fought to save. 

15. Who steals my purse steals trash. 

16. For I have business would employ an age. 

17. Though in her eye and faded cheek, 
Is read the grief she will not speak. 

18. Time need not be wasted. 

19. No other historian of that country need be mentioned. 

20. John needs advice. 

21. Methinks I see the portals of eternity wide open to 
receive him. 

22. She is worth him and all his connexions. 

23. This life, at best, is but a dream. 

24. This soldier talked the night away. 

25. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

26. The circumstances were as follow. 

27. His words were as follows. 

28. A picture of my friend. 

29. A picture of my friend's. 

30. The letter I expected yesterday, arrived to-day. 

31. I am about to write. 



PUNCTUATION. 

{Compiled chiefly from Mr. Murray 1 s Grammar.) 

Punctuation teaches to divide written compo- 
sition into parts or sentences, by points or stops, 
as the sense and correct pronunciation require. 

THE COMMA. 

I. The several words of which a simple sen- 
tence consists, have so near a relation to each 
other, that, in general, no points are requisite, 
except a full stop at the end of it : as, 

Every part of matter swarms with living creatures. 
No state of life is exempt from trouble. 

II. When a simple sentence is long, and the 
subject of the verb is accompanied with insepara- 
ble adjuncts, it may admit of a pause imme- 
diately before the verb : as, 

To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real 
defect in character. 

(104) 



THE COMMA. 105 

III. When the connexion of the different parts 
of a simple sentence is interrupted by an imper- 
fect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before 
the beginning, and at the end of such phrase : as, 

His work is, in many inspects, imperfect. 
It is, therefore, not much approved. 

IV. Two or more names, verbs, participles, 
pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions, in 
the same construction, are separated by com- 
mas: as, 

The length, breadth, and depth, are all equal. 

In a letter we may advise, comfort, and discuss. 

Thou art happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected. 

You have slandered her, him, us, and others. 

The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, the most 
rational, the most affecting, and the most lasting. 

He was suddenly, strangely, and fatally smitten. 

They may go before, behind, around, or through the 
house. 

Note. — Two words closely connected by a conjunction, generally 
form an exception to this rule : as, 

Virtue and diligence lead to success. 
We must live virtuously or viciously. 
He was a great and good man. 
Some live only to eat and drink. 

V. When participles are followed by some- 
thing that depends on them, they are, generally, 



106 THE COMMA. 

separated from the rest of the sentence by a 
comma : as, 

The king, approving the plan, put ifc in execution. 
His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail to 
render him conspicuous. 

VI. When a conjunction is separated by a 
phrase or sentence, from the verb to which it 
belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a 
comma at each extremity : as, 

They set out early, and, before the close of the day, 
arrived at the destined place. 

VII. Expressions in a direct address, nouns or 
pronouns placed independently with a participle, 
or infinitive verbs independent of the rest of the 
sentence, are separated by commas from the body 
of the sentence : as, 

My friend, do not be alarmed. 

His father dying, he succeeded to his estate. 

To confess the truth, I was much in fault. 

VIII. Names added to other names in the 
same construction, by way of explication or illus- 
tration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set 
off by commas : as, 

Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal 
and knowledge. 

The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 



THE COMMA. ' 107 

But if such names are single, or only form a 
proper name, they are not so divided : as, 

Paul the apostle. 

The emperor Antoninus. 

IX. Simple members of sentences connected by 
comparatives, unless very short, are, generally, 
distinguished by a comma : as, 

Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox 
and hatred with it. 

X. Words placed in opposition to each other, 
or with some marked variety; two or more 
nouns referring to the same preposition ; and re- 
markable expressions, or short observations, 
somewhat in the manner of quotations, are, 
usually, distinguished by commas : as, 

Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full. 

Many states were in alliance with, and under the protec- 
tion of Rome. 

He was composed, both under the threatening, and at the 
approach, of a cruel and lingering death. 

Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves, 

XI. The pronouns who, which, and that, often 
require a comma before them : as, 

He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and 
pious life. 



108 THE COMA. 

XII. A simple member of a sentence, con- 
tained witliin another, unless the connexion is 
very close, must be distinguished by commas : as, 

To improve time, while we are blessed with health, will 
smooth the bed of sickness. 

XIII. When the verb be is followed by an infi- 
nitive verb, which, by transposition, might be 
made its subject, the former is generally sepa- 
rated from the latter verb by a comma : as, 

The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all asso- 
ciations with bad men. 

The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, 
is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men. 

XIV. When a verb is understood, a comma 
may often be properly introduced : as, 

From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from 
curiosity, knowledge. 

XV. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, 
secondly, formerly, now, lastly, once more, above 
all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, 
and all other words and phrases of the same kind, 
must, generally, be separated from the context by 
a comma : as, 

He feared want, hence, he overvalued riches. 

Finally, I shall only repeat what has been often justly said. 



THE SEMICOLON — COLON. 109 



THE SEMICOLON. 

I. When a member of a sentence contains a 
complete proposition, and is followed by a clause 
expressing an inference, or explanation, they 
must be separated by the semicolon : as, 

Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the 
bottom. 

But all subsists by elemental strife ; 
And passions are the elements of life. 

II. When several short sentences follow each 
other, having only a slight connection in idea, 
they should be separated by the semicolon : as, 

The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; tragedy 
represents a disastrous event; comedy ridicules the vices 
and follies of mankind; pastoral poetry describes rural 
life ; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the 
heart. 

Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full. 



THE COLON. 

The colon is used — 

I. When a member of a sentence is complete in 
10 



110 THE COLON. 

itself, but followed by some supplemental remark, 
or further illustration of the subject : as, 

Study to acquire a habit of thinking : no study is more 
important. 

Nature confesseth some atonement to be necessary : the 
gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made. 

II. When a semicolon, or more than one, has 
preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary, 
in order to mark the connecting or concluding 
sentiment: as, 

In faith and hope the world will disagree ; 
But all mankind's concern is charity : 
All must be false that thwart this one great end ; 
And, all of God, that bless mankind or mend. 

III. When an example, a quotation, or a speech, 
is introduced: as, 

The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the 
Deity, in these words : " God is love." 

He was often heard to say: " I am done with the world, 
and am willing to leave it." 

IV. The propriety of using a colon, or semi- 
colon, is sometimes determined by a conjunction's 
being expressed, or not expressed : as, 

Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happi- 
ness : there is no such thing in the world. 

Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happi- 
ness ; for there is no such thing in the world. 



THE PEKIOD — DASH, ETC. Ill 

THE PEEIOD. 

The period marks a full stop ; and is placed at 
the close of a complete and independent sen- 
tence. It is also used after initials and abbre- 
viations : as, 
N. S. for New Style. Dr. for Doctor. Gen. for General. 

THE DASH. 

The dash marks an abrupt turn in the sen- 
tence : as, 

Here lies the great — False marble, where? 
If thou art he — but how fallen ! 

THE POINT OF INTEBROGATION 

Follows a question: as, 

When did he come? 

Am I compelled to suffer? 

THE POINT OF EXCLAMATION 

Is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, 
surprise, joy, grief, &c, and also to invocations 
or addresses : as, 

My friend ! this conduct amazes me ! 
But alas ! it was too late ! 



112 CAPITAL LETTEES. 

CAPITAL LETTEES. 

Every name of the Deity — 

The principal words in the title of a book or 



Every line in poetry — 

All proper names of persons, places, &c. — 

Adjectives derived from proper names — 

All names of things when addressed — 

Every sentence after a full stop — 

Quotations, introduced after a colon — 

The interjections, Oh, &c. — should begin with 

a capital letter. 

The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should 

always be capital letters. 

GENERAL EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 

If we have no regard for our character we ought to have 
some regard for our interest 

His hopes his happiness his very life hung upon the next 
word from those lips 

what is it that a roman would not suffer 
that a Venetian prince must bear 

Homer was the greater genius virgil the better artist 
in the one we more admire the man in the other the work 
homer like the nile pours out his riches with a sudden 
overflow virgil like a river in its banks with a constant 
stream 



EXAMPLES FOE CORRECTION. 113 

Did ye not hear it no 'twas but the wind 
Or the car rattling o'er the stony street 

On with the dance let joy be unconfined 

No sleep till morn when youth and pleasure meet 

To chase the glowing hours with flying feet 

But hark that heavy sound breaks in once more 
As if the clouds its echo would repeat 
And nearer clearer deadlier than before 
Arm arm it is it is the cannon's opening roar 

philip III king of spain when he drew near the end of 
his days seriously reflecting on his past life and greatly 
affected with the remembrance of his mispent time ex- 
pressed his deep regret in these terms " ah how happy 
would it have been for me had i spent in retirement these 
twenty three years that i have possessed my kingdom." 

The Gardens of the World produce only deciduous flow- 
ers Perennial ones must be sought in the Delightful Re- 
gions Above Roses without Thorns are the Growth of 
paradise alone 

He advanced slowly silently cautiously but resolutely to 
the centre of the hostile camp 

The sunrise drew her thoughts to europe forth 
That thus apostrophized its viewless scene 
" Land of my father's love my mother's birth 
The home of kindred I have never seen 
We know not other oceans are between 
Yet say far friendly hearts from whence we came 
Of us does oft remembrance intervene 
My mother sure my sire a thought may claim 
But gertrude is to you an unregarded name" 



10 : 



APPENDIX. 

For the accommodation of teachers who pre- 
fer the usual method of conjugating verbs, we add 
the following Appendix. A comparison between 
this and the 28th Section of the Grammar will 
show the superior advantages of forming verbs 
from the infinitive. 

PEESON. 

The person of a word is a relation resulting 
from its position in a sentence, as representing 
the speaker, hearer, or individual spoken of. 
There are three persons, called the first, second, 
and third persons. 

The first person denotes the speaker : as, "I, 
Isaac Jones, hereby declare, &c." 

The second person denotes the individual or 
thing spoken to : as, "James, go home." 

The third person denotes the individual or 
thing spoken of: as, " William lost a watch. 1 ' 

(115) 



116 APPENDIX. 

MOODS. 

Mood is the manner of representing action, 
being, or state. 

Verbs are said to have five moods ; the Infini- 
tive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunc- 
tive, and the Imperative. 

The Infinitive mood expresses action, being, or 
state, without limitation by person and number : . 
as, "To run," "to love," "to be." 

The Indicative mood simply indicates or de- 
clares a thing, or asks a question : as, " He 
sleeps," "they read," "who reads?" 

The Potential mood expresses the power, 
liberty, possibility, or necessity, of action, being, 
or state: as, "I may come," "you must cease." 

The Subjunctive mood expresses action, being, 
or state, in a doubtful or conditional manner : as, 
"If you return," "unless he go." 

The Imperative mood is used for commanding, 
exhorting, entreating, or permitting: as, "De- 
part thou," "be encouraged," "assist me," "go 
in peace." 



APPENDIX. 117 

CONJUGATIONS. 

LOVE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TIME. PRIOR-PRESENT, OR PERFECT. 

To love. To have loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TIME. 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I love. First Person. We love. 

Second Person. Thou lovest. Second Person. You love. 

Third Person. He loves. Third Person. They love. 

OR, 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2 Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 

PAST, OR IMPERFECT, 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

OR, 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

PRIOR-PRESENT, OR PERFECT. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 



118 APPENDIX. 

PRIOR-PAST, OR PLUPERFECT. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

PUTUREj OR FIRST FUTURE. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. "We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

PRIOR-FUTURE, OR SECOND FUTURE. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved. 2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT, OR INDEFINITE TIME. 

Singular. 

1. I may, can, must, might, could, would, or should love. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, must, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst love. 

3. He may, can, must, might, could, would, or should love. 

Plural. 

1. We may, can, must, might, could, would, or should love. 

2. You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should love. 

3. They may, can, must, might could, would, or should love. 

PRIOR-PRESENT, OR PERFECT. 

Singular. 

1. I may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

loved. 

2. Thou mayst, canst, must, mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst have loved. 

3. He may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

loved. 



APPENDIX. 119 

Plural. 

1. We may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

loved. 

2. You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

loved. 

3. They may, can, must, might, could, would, or should have 

loved. 

Note. — Some give the paradigm of the Potential thus: 
Present. — I may, can, or must love, &c. 
Past. — I might, could, would, or should love, &c. 
Perfect. — I may, can, or must have loved, &c. 
Pluperfect. — I might, could, would, or should have loved, Ac. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 







PRESENT TIME. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


If I love. 


1. If we love. 


2. 


If thou love. 


2. If you love. 


3. 


If he love. 


3. If they love, 



PAST OR IMPERFECT. 

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou loved or lovedst. 2. If you loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

PRIOR-FUTURE, OR SECOND FUTURE. 

1. If I shall have loved. 1. If we shall have loved. 

2. If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall have loved. 

3. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. 

Note. — The other divisions of time, in the Subjunctive, are similar 
to the corresponding divisions of the Indicative, with a conjunction 
prefixed. 



120 



APPENDIX. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TIME. 

Singular. 2. Love (thou), or Do thou love. 
Plural. 2. Love (ye or you), or Do you love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect, 

Loving. Loved. Having loved. 

BE BE LOVED. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

To be. To be loved. 



PRIOR-PRESENT OR PERFECT. 

To have been. To have been loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



1. I am. 

2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 

1. We are. 

2. You are. 

3. They are. 



PRESENT. 

Singular. 



Plural. 



1. I am loved. 

3. Thou art loved. 

2. He is loved. 

1. We are loved. 

3. You are loved. 

2. They are loved. 



PAST, OR IMPERFECT. 

Singular. 

1. I was. 1. I was loved. 

2. Thou wast. 2. Thou wast loved. 

3. He was. 3. He was loved. 



APPENDIX. 



121 



1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 



Plural. 

1. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. 

3. They were loved. 



PRIOR-PRESENT, OR PERFECT. 

Singular. 

1. I have been. 1. I have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. Thou hast been loved. 

3. He has been. 3. He has been lovtd. 



1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 



Plural. 

1. We have been loved. 

2. You have been loved. 

3. They have been loved. 



PRIOR-PAST, OR PLUPERFECT. 

Singular. 

1. I had been. 1. I had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. Thou hadst been loved. 

3. He had been. 3. He had been loved. 



1. We had been. 

2. You had been. 

3. They had been. 



Plural. 

1. We had been loved. 

2. You had been loved. 

3. They had been loved. 



FUTURE, OR FIRST FUTURE- 

Singular. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. I shall or will be loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 

3. He shall or will be. 3. He shall or will be loved. 



1. We shall or will be. 

2. You shall or will be. 

3. They shall or will be. 

ii 



Plural. 

1. We shall or will be loved. 

2. You shall or will be loved. 

3. They shall or will be loved. 



122 APPENDIX. 

PRIOR-FUTURE, OR SECOND FUTURE. 

Singular. 

1. I shall have been. 1. I shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Thou wilt have been loved. 

3. He will have been. 3. He will have been loved. 

Plural. 

1. We shall have been. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. You will have been. 2. You will have been loved. 

3. They will have been. 3. They will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT, OR INDEFINITE. 

Singular. 

1. I may be. 1. I may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. Thou mayst be loved. 

3. He may be. 3. He may be loved. 



1 



Plural. 
jl. We may be. 1. We may be loved. 

2. You may be. 2. You may be loved. 

3. They may be. 3. They may be loved. 

PRIOR-PRESENT, OR PERFECT. 

Singular. 

1. I may have been. 1. I may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. Thou mayst have been 

loved. 

3. He may have been. 3. He may have been loved. 

Plural. 

1. We may have been. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. You may have been. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. They may have been. 3. They may have been loved. 

Note. — Throughout this mood, proceed in the same manner, with 
the auxiliaries, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 



APPENDIX. 



123 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TIME. 

Singular. 

1. If I be. 1. If I be loved. 

2. If thou be. 2. If thou be loved. 

3. If he be. 3. If he be loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we be. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be 2. If you be loved. 

3. If they be. 3. If they be loved. 

PAST, OR IMPERFECT. 

Singular. 

1. If I were. 1. If I were loved. 

2. If thou wert or were. 2. If thou wert loved. 

3. If he were. 3. If he were loved. 



1. If we were. 

2. If you were. 

3. If they were. 



Plural. 

1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



PRIOR-FUTURE, OR SECOND FUTURE. 

Singular*. 

1. If I shall have been. 1. If I shall have been loved. 

2. If thou shalt have been. 2. If thou shalt have been 

loved. 

3. If he shall have been. 3. If he shall have been loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we shall have been. 1. If we shall have been loved. 

2. If you shall have been. 2. If you shall have been 

loved. 

3. If they shall have been. 3. If they shall have been 

loved. 

Note. — Tbe other divisions of time, of the Subjunctive mood, are 
formed by prefixing a conjunction of doubt or condition to the cor- 
responding divisions of the Indieative. 



124 APPENDIX. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TIME. 

Singular. 
2. Be (thou), or Do thou be. 
2. Be (thou) loved, or Do thou be loved. 

Plural. 
2. Be (ye or you), or Do you be. 
2. Be (ye or you) loved, or Do you be loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 

Being loved. Been loved. Having been loved. 

Verbs may also be conjugated, by adding the Present 
Participle to the Verb Be, in its various changes, through 
all the moods and divisions of time : as, " I am loving/' 
"they were loving/' "you will be loving/' &c. 

It is unnecessary to give these forms in detail, as they 
may all be easily obtained from the last example. 



For the convenience of teachers who may not 
wish to adopt our method of showing the agree- 
ment between the verb and its subject, or nomi- 
native (in Section 29), we here give the usual 

EULE. 

A finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
in person and number: as, "I learn" " thou learnest" 
" he learns" " the boys learn." 



THE END. 



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Bourdon's Arithmetic. ByVENABLE. l-'nio. half arabesque. 
Loornis' (S. L.) Arithmetic. 1 vol. l'imo. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES. 

BY ROSWELL C. SMITH, A.M. 

Smiths First Book; or, Primary Geography. Designed for Children. Illustrated with 

126 Engravings and 30 Maps. New Revised Edition. 

Smith's Second Book ; or, Quarto Geography. A Concise and Practical System of Geo- 
graphy for Schools, Academies, and Families. Designed as a Sequel to the First Book. Illustrated 
with 33 Steel Maps and numerous Engravings. Newly Revised and Enlarged Edition. 

Smith's Geography and Atlas. Geography on the Productive System, for Schools, Academies, 
and Families. Newly Revised, Illustrated, and Corrected Edition, embracing 40 pages of Ancient 
Geography, accompanied with a large and valuable Atlas, containing several new Maps,— also a large 
one of the Roman Empire. (Atlas bound in stiff covers.) 

An Historical Text-Book, and Atlas of Biblical Geography. With seven new Maps 
engraved on steel. By Lyman Coleman, D.D. 

SARGENT'S SERIES OF READERS. 

Sargent's Standard Fifth or First Class Reader. 12mo, half morocco. 
Sargent's Standard Fourth Reader. 12mo, half morocco. 
Sargent's Standard Third Reader. 12mo, half morocco. 
Sargent's Standard Second Reader. Illustrated. 
Sargent's Standard First Reader. Illustrated. 
Sargent'p Standard Primer. Finely Illustrated. 
Sargent's Standard Spelling Book. 
Sargent's Standard Primary Spelling Book. 



